The energy policy of the Russian Federation is contained in an Energy Strategy document, which sets out policy for the period up to 2020. In 2000, the Russian Government approved the main provisions of the Russian energy strategy to 2020, and in 2003, the new Russian energy strategy was confirmed by the Government. The Energy Strategy document outlines several main priorities: an increase in energy efficiency, reduction of impact on the environment, sustainable development, energy development and technological development, as well as improved effectiveness and competitiveness.

The aims of the structural policy for the energy sector for the next 10–15 years include:

Enhancement of the efficiency of natural gas utilization and an increase in its share of domestic consumption, especially in ecologically strained regions;

• In-depth processing and comprehensive utilization of hydrocarbon raw materials;

• Enhancement of coal quality, as well as the stabilization of coal production volumes;

• Intensification of local and renewable energy resource development (hydro and wind power, peat, etc.);

• Prioritizing electricity generation development, based on competitive and ecologically clean power plants;

• Safety and reliability enhancement of the first generation NPPs and development of new, advanced nuclear power plants.

The new technological energy policy is oriented towards:

Radical enhancement of both the cost effectiveness and energy efficiency of all stages of the extraction, conversion, distribution and utilization of energy resources;

• Effective decentralization of the energy supply;

• Ecological and accident safety, as well as the reliability of the energy supply;

• Development of qualitatively new technologies for the stable evolution of the power industry: ecologically clean coal-fired power plants, safe nuclear power plants, efficient processes for the utilization of new sources of power, etc.

Regional energy policy takes into account the existing principal differences in energy supply conditions and in the structures of the fuel resources of various parts of the Russian Federation. Regional energy self-governance and self-sufficiency is envisaged as a major challenge, i.e. the sustaining of the unified national energy sector through the development of federal energy systems, involving electricity, gas and oil supply networks (Energy Strategy of Russia — http://www.energystrategy.ru/projects/docs/ES-2030_%28Eng%29.pdf).

Energy reserves are shown in Table 1. Fossil fuels form the basis for the Russian energy sector.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

*Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m3; Uranium: Metric tons; Hydro, Renewable: TW.

Calculation of EJ equivalent for renewables is expressed for a period of 10 years.

**Solids include both coal and lignite.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Base; country information.

Table 2 gives the historical energy data. The share of nuclear energy in the energy consumption is about 2%, and hydro energy remains the most important renewable energy resource in Russia. The share of hydro energy in the energy consumption is also about 2%.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

*Latest available data.

**Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.

***Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; country information.

The Russian electric power system consists of the interconnected (unified) and disconnected parts. More than 90% of the generation capacities run synchronously on a vast territory spanning almost 7000 kilometers from east to west. Off-grid electric systems supply customers in the Russian Far East and north territories of the country. The transmission network covers 10 time zones and helps to meet the peak demand in winter. Nuclear sources are useful insofar as they can be used significantly longer than some fossil fuels. Currently, this source of energy is considered in Russia as the most viable for electricity generation for the next 50 years (https://minenergo.gov.ru/en).

Transmission and Distribution

There are seven separate regional power systems in the Russian electricity sector: Northwest, Centre, Middle Volga, North Caucasus, Urals, Siberia, and Far East. The Far East region is the only one not connected to an integrated power system. Unified Energy System, which is 52% owned by the Russian Government (Gazprom now has a 10% stake), controls most of the transmission and distribution in Russia. UES owns 96% of the transmission and distribution system, the central dispatch unit, and the federal wholesale electricity market (FOREM).

Unified Energy System

The Unified Energy System of Russia (UESR) is a unique system which creates significant economic benefits for both the Russian people and Russia’s industry. The technical basis of UES of Russia comprises:

700 electric power stations with a total installed capacity of 236.34 thousand MW, including 27.9 thousand MW at nuclear power stations, which produced 1071,7 billion kWh of power in 2016 (https://minenergo.gov.ru/node/532);

A total of 3,018 million km of electric power lines;

• A supply regulation system that physically unites all power installations with a single 50 Hz current frequency.

The organizational basis of UES of Russia comprises:

RAO UESR, which acts as a central locus that implements the functioning and development criteria established by the Government, based on effectiveness, and provides operational supply management aimed at increasing economic efficiency at UESR;

• 74 power suppliers that supply electric and heat power to consumers throughout the Russian Federation;

• 34 large electric power stations that operate independently on the federal (national) wholesale electric power market;

• Over 300 organizations providing technological back up and development for UES of Russia, and which ensure the viability of the industry as a whole

Privatization and Electricity Market Reform

The restructuring of Russia’s power generation sector was completed in 1 July 2008, when the state monopoly ‘RAO UESR’ was dissolved. The country’s transmission grid remained under state control, however. The reform has created a generating sector divided into multiple wholesale electricity companies (commonly called OGKs), which participate in a new competitive wholesale market.

The main participants of wholesale market are:

• Thermal wholesale generation companies (6);

• Atomic generation company;

• Hydro generation company;

• Other generation companies;

• Federal grid company;

• Trading operator;

• System operator.

Electricity Exports

Russia exports significant quantities of electricity to the countries of the former Soviet Union, as well as to China, Poland, Turkey and Finland. UESR also has plans to export electricity to the Islamic Republic of Iran, and possibly to Afghanistan and Pakistan, from two hydroelectric stations it is currently building in Tajikistan. There are also currently two efforts underway to integrate the Russian and western European electricity grids. UESR is participating in the Baltrel programme, designed to create an energy ring of power companies in the Baltic States. The Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), of which 20 European countries are members, has also entered into discussions with Russian colleagues over the technological and operational aspects of interconnecting their systems.

Table 3 shows the historical electricity production data and installed capacities, and Table 4 shows the energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. INSTALLED CAPACITY, ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

*Latest available data.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Russia in figures (http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/doc_2016/rusfig/rus16e.pdf), Summary Statistical Transactions.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

*Latest available data.

**Net import / Total energy consumption.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Annual Report of the UES of Russia in 2016 (http://so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2017/ups_rep2016.pdf), Summary Statistical Transactions.

Russia is optimistic about its nuclear programme, despite the recent decline in demand for electricity. Electricity generation at nuclear power plants increased by 11% during the last 6 years. The installed capacity of nuclear power plants increased by 9%. Currently, six new nuclear power reactors are under construction. Russia is taking part in the construction of new nuclear power plants in India, Islamic Republic of Iran and China. Agreements on the development of nuclear power production were signed with Belarus, Hungary and Finland.

Below is chronological outline of the development of nuclear power in Russia.

Today, the Russian nuclear industry constitutes a powerful complex of over 250 enterprises and organizations employing over 250 000 people. The industry structure includes four large scale research and production complexes, with research institutes and enterprises specializing in nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear power engineering, and nuclear weapons applications. JSC Atomenergoprom, which consolidates the civilian part of the nuclear industry, is a part of Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation. ROSATOM unites a number of enterprises in nuclear power engineering, as well as nuclear and radiation safety, the nuclear weapons complex, and fundamental research. Atomenergoprom is part of Rosatom State Nuclear Power Corporation. Atomenergoprom produces a wide range of nuclear and non-nuclear products, as well as providing full service in the area of nuclear power engineering. In particular, the company provides design and turnkey construction of nuclear power plants, fuel supplies for the whole operating life of nuclear plants, upgrading and maintenance, as well as personnel training. The company structure consists of divisions formed according to the basic segments of the nuclear fuel cycle:

Uranium production;

• Uranium conversion and enrichment;

• Nuclear fuel production;

• Nuclear and power machine engineering;

• Design, engineering and construction of nuclear power plants;

• Power generation at nuclear power plants.

In addition, Atomenergoprom’s structure includes enterprises offering products and services in the following areas:

• Nuclear power plant maintenance and upgrading;

• Nuclear power plant personnel training;

• Isotopes;

• Scientific and research companies and design offices;

• Non-nuclear products and services.

Figure 2 shows the structure of the nuclear industry in Russia.

Fig. 2. Structure of nuclear industry in Russia.

Figure 3 shows a map of Russian nuclear power plants. Table 5 shows the current status of Russia’s nuclear power plants.

With 35 operating reactors, Russia’s nuclear plants comprise:

Three first generation pressurized water reactors similar to the VVER-440.

• Two second generation VVER-440 pressurized water reactors.

• Thirteen third generation VVER-1000 pressurized water reactors with a full containment structure, mostly V-320 types.

• Eleven RBMK light water graphite reactors now unique to Russia. The four oldest of these were commissioned in the 1970s at Kursk and Leningrad.

• Four small graphite moderated BWR reactors in eastern Siberia constructed in the 1970s for cogeneration (EGP-6 models in Fig. 3).

• BN-600 and BN-800 fast reactors.

Fig. 3. Map of Russian nuclear power plants.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Data source: IAEA Power Reactor Information System (PRIS).

Note: Table is completely generated from PRIS data to reflect the latest available information.

In 2016, Russian nuclear power plants produced 196.4 terawatt hours of electricity, a new record.

At Beloyarsk NPP, one of the most important events of the year in the nuclear power industry of Russia was when power unit No. 4 (BN-800) became commercially operational on time. The order on this was signed on 31 October 2016 by the general director of Rosenergoatom Concern Andrey Petrov on the basis of the permission of the State Corporation Rosatom. Nuclear power generation comprised about 18.3% of the country’s total electricity generation. Nuclear power plants are operated by Concern Rosenergoatom.

TABLE 5A. PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN 2016

The lifetime extension activities for units of NPPs were initiated pursuant to the programme of development of nuclear power industry in the Russian Federation in 1998–2005 and the period up to 2010 approved by the Russian Federation Government Decree No. 815 of 21 July 1998. The long term programme of activities of the Rosatom state atomic energy corporation for the period 2009–2015 approved by Russian Federation Government Decree No. 705 of 20 September 2008 calls for lifetime extension of operational nuclear power units.

Most reactors are being licensed for lifetime extension. Half of Russia’s nuclear generation in 2015 came from units which had been upgraded for long term operation and were operating beyond their initial design lifetimes (of around 30 years), mostly with 15 year extensions initially. Twenty four of 34 reactors operating in 2015 had been upgraded with lifetime extension, adding 3 GWe of generating capacity. Of the other ten, five were being upgraded and five were relatively new anyway.

Generally, Russian reactors were originally licensed for 30 years from first power. Late in 2000, plans were announced for lifetime extensions of 12 first generation reactors (Leningrad 1 and 2, Kursk 1 and 2, Kola 1 and 2, Bilibino 1–4 and Novovoronezh 3 and 4) totaling 5.7 GWe, necessitating major investment in refurbishing them. However, the cost of this is generally only one fifth that of building replacement capacity. In 2014, a new state programme on licence extension was approved, bringing standards into line with international ones.

Through the end of 2011, 15 year extensions had been achieved for 17 units totaling 9.8 GWe. Through mid-2016, operational licence extensions had been implemented for 24 units totaling 16 242 MWe: Beloyarsk 3, Novovoronezh 3–5, Kola 1–4, Kalinin 1, Balakovo 1, Kursk 1–4, Leningrad 1–4, Smolensk 1 and 2 and Bilibino 1–4. Projects for Balakovo 2–4, Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 will be carried out by 2023.

Generally the VVER-440 units have gotten 15 year life extensions (Kola 1 and 2 VVER-440 units are V-230 models, which the EU has paid to shut down early in countries outside Russia; Novovoronezh 4, a V-179, is a predecessor to these). Kola 2 is undergoing safety analysis with a view to extend its licence to 60 years, and Kola 1 is also expected to be licensed beyond 45 years after annealing of the reactor pressure vessel. The Kola 3 licence extension to 2026 (45 years) was confirmed in February 2016 after upgrading work. Novovoronezh 4 is expected to be licensed to 60 years using cannibalised parts from Unit 3, shut down at the end of 2016.

Most VVER-1000 units are expected to have 30 year licence extensions. In 2015, Balakovo 1 was licensed to 60 years, and intentions for Units 2–4 are similar. Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 are expected to have a 30 year licence extension by 2025.

In 2006, Rosatom said it was considering 15 year lifetime extensions and uprating of all 11 of its operating RBMK reactors, and 10 had licence extensions by mid-2016. Following significant design modifications made after the Chernobyl accident, as well as extensive refurbishment including replacement of fuel channels, a 45 year lifetime is seen as realistic for most of the 1000 MWe units. In 2011, they provided 47.5% of Russia’s nuclear generated electricity.

For older RBMK units, service lifetime performance recovery (LPR) operations involve correcting deformation of the graphite stack. After dismantling the pressure tubes, longitudinal cutting of a limited number of graphite columns returns the graphite stack geometry to a condition that meets the initial design requirements. The procedure will give each of these older reactors at least three years of extra operation, and may then be repeated. Leningrad 1 was the first reactor to undergo this over 2012–2013, followed by the Kursk units and with Smolensk due for attention in 2017.

Most reactors are being uprated. The July 2012 Energy Ministry draft plan envisaged increasing the power of VVER-440 units to 107%, that of RBMKs to 105% and VVER-1000 units to 104–110% (revised to 107–110% in 2013).

In May 2015 Rosenergoatom said it had completed uprating all VVER-1000 reactors to 104% of rated power, and was starting to take them to 107% using the advanced TVS-2M fuel design, starting with Balakovo 4. Earlier, uprating of 5% for VVER-440 reactors (but 7% for Kola 4) had been achieved, and in 2015, Kola 3 went to 107%. The overall cost was less than RUR 3 billion (US $60.5 million), according to Rosenergoatom. The cost of this was earlier put at US$ 200 per kilowatt, compared with $2400/kW for construction of Rostov 2. Kalinin Units 1–3 are quoted at 1075 MWe gross after uprate, and Unit 4 started pilot commercial operation at 104% of rated power in February 2015, with 40 a MWe increase.

Rosenergoatom has been investigating further uprates of VVER-1000 units to 107–110% of original capacity, using Balakovo 4 as a pilot plant through 2014. The cost of further uprates beyond 104% is expected to be up to $570/kW, depending on what needs to be replaced — the turbine generators being the main items. For the V-320 units, pilot commercial operation at 104% power is carried out over three fuel campaigns, with the reactor and other system parameters being monitored and relevant data collected. After this period, a cumulative 104% power operation report is produced for each plant. Rostechnadzor will then assess safety and possibly license commercial operation at the higher power level.

Rosenergoatom is considering the introduction of a 24 month fuel cycle at new nuclear power units. Previously, VVER-1000 reactors operated for 12 months without refuelling, and from 2008 they were all converted to an 18 month fuel cycle. VVER-440s still use a 12 month cycle. To achieve 24 months in new units, the design of VVERs will need to be changed and fuel enrichment would need to be increased from 4–4.5% U-235 to 6–7% in the VVER-TOI design.

The R&D Institute of Power Engineering was preparing plans for a 5% uprating of the later Leningrad, Kursk and Smolensk RBMK units. For Leningrad 2–4, fuel enriched to an average of 3% instead of 2.4% would allow a 5% increase in power, and Rostechnadzor authorized trials in Unit 2 of the new fuel. Following this, it was to consider authorizing a 5% uprate for long term operation. However, Rosenergoatom in May 2012 flagged problems with ageing of the graphite moderator (most acute at Leningrad 1), questioned proceeding with uprates of older units, and said it would consider derating individual units where problems such as pressure tube distortion were apparent due to graphite swelling. Leningrad 1 would be derated to 80% to prolong its operating life, and work to restore its graphite stack and extend its service life was completed late in 2013. Similar work would then be done on all first generation RBMKs, since these are so important economically to Rosenergoatom. However, future RBMK operation might possibly be at reduced capacity of 80% across all units. The successful repair of Leningrad 1 removed the pressure for accelerated replacement of old RBMK units.

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Sources: PRIS database, Rosenergoatom (http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosenergoatom_copy/site_en/).

The latest Federal Target Program (FTP) envisages a 25–30% nuclear share in electricity supply by 2030, 45–50% in 2050 and 70–80% by end of century. In August 2016, a government decree set out plans to build 11 new reactors beyond Kursk and those now under construction by 2030, as part of the Unified Energy System of Russia. It brought forward the dates for the first two BN-1200 reactors. The 11 units are listed in Table 7 as “planned” to 2030, along with further Novovoronezh and Leningrad units.

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: VVER-1200 is the reactor portion of the AES-2006 nuclear power plant; Rostov is also known as Volgodonsk.

Starting in 2020–2025 it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in Russia, with much of the fuel being recycled. Fast reactors are projected to comprise some 34 GWe of capacity by 2050. The principal scheme for innovation in nuclear power for Russia is based on a new technology platform that envisages full recycling of fuel, from balancing thermal and fast reactors, so that 100 GWe of total capacity requires only about 100 tonnes per year from enrichment of tails and natural uranium with minor actinides being burned. About 100 t/yr of fission product wastes will go to a geological repository.

The FTP programme is based on VVER technology, at least until roughly 2030. It highlights the goal of moving to fast neutron reactors and a closed fuel cycle, for which Rosatom proposed two options. The first is to select a fast neutron reactor with lead coolant as the basic technology, and to mobilize all available resources for this exclusively. This is expected to cost RUR 110 billion, mostly drawing from the federal budget. The second option also provides for development of fast neutron reactors, cooled by sodium and lead–bismuth, with the related engineering designs of such reactors and closed fuel cycle technologies to be in place no later than 2014. A detailed design should be developed for the construction of a multipurpose fast neutron research reactor (MBIR) by then also. This second option is designed to attract more funds aside from the federal budget allocation, and is the option favoured by Rosatom.

In mid-2009, the Russian Government said that it would provide more than RUR 120 billion (about US $3.89 billion) from 2010 to 2012 for a new programme devoted to R&D on the next generation of nuclear power plants. It identified three priorities for the nuclear industry: improving the performance of light water reactors over the next two or three years, developing a closed fuel cycle based on deployment of fast reactors in the medium term, and developing nuclear fusion over the long term.

In February 2010, the Government announced that Rosenergoatom’s investment programme for 2010 amounted to RUR 163.3 billion, of which RUR 53 billion would come from the federal budget. Of the total cost, RUR 101.7 billion is for nuclear plant construction, almost half of which is to come from Rosenergoatom’s funds. It includes the reactors listed above as under construction, as well as Leningrad II-2 and the Baltic plant. In March, Rosatom said that it now intended to commission three new reactors per year from 2016.

However, early in 2017 the CEO of Rosatom said that the Government would end state support for the construction of new nuclear units in 2020, and so Rosatom had to learn to earn money on its own, primarily via commercial nuclear energy projects in the international market. He said that Rosatom had come from being a consortium of unprofitable, separately run businesses a decade ago to a vertically integrated state corporation with improved strategies and financial performance, thanks in part to a “large scale” programme of state funding. “In this situation … we must learn how to earn money independently,” especially in the world market. “Optimization of the management system should become the main theme of 2017.”

The highly automated Russian Power Grid is the world’s largest complex for generating, transmitting and distributing electric power, and for controlling these processes on a day to day basis. The power industry in Russia developed stepwise, by incorporating regional power systems, working in parallel, and forming interregional electric power pools, which merged to form a single Power Grid. The nation’s Power Grid started to evolve as soon as the GOELRO plan was launched. Russia’s Power Grid, the main component of the national power industry, is a complex network of power plants and mains, which have the same operating mode and centralized dispatching control. The transition to this form of organization of the power industry made it possible to make the most of power resources and to improve the economics and reliability of energy supply, for the benefit of both economy and population.

The control of this immense, synchronously operating system, which spans 7 000 km west to east and over 3000 km north to south, is a very complex engineering task, which has no analogues anywhere in the world. Also, in its more than 40 years in operation, the Russian Power Grid has accumulated a wealth of experience in the reliable and efficient supply of quality energy to users. Of the total of 74 power networks, the Power Grid of Russia comprises 69 power networks. Of the seven Integrated Power Systems (IPSs), six work in parallel as part of the Power Grid: the Center, Middle Volga, Urals, Northwest, North Caucasus, and Siberia IPSs. The East IPS operates separately from the Siberia IPS. Working in parallel with the Russian Power Grid are the power systems of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia and Ukraine, and, through the insertion of direct current, the power system of Finland.

Placement of nuclear power plants in Russia is performed in accordance with resolution No. 823 of the Government of the Russian Federation of 17 October 2009 “On schemes for long-term development of electric power”.

Basic principles of the schemes and programmes for long term electric power development are:

Efficiency;

• Application of new technological solutions;

• Coordination of schemes and programmes of long term development of electric power related technologies;

• Publicity and openness of public investment strategies and solutions.

Territory near active volcanoes and territory at risk of exposure to tsunamis and catastrophic floods must be deemed unfavourable for the placement of NPPs.

ROSATOM’s comprehensive offerings include PR solutions that make it possible to obtain public acceptance of nuclear power, which is viewed as a cornerstone of stability in the nuclear industry around the globe. ROSATOM adheres to principles of transparency, raising public awareness of Russian nuclear operations. This approach enables it to secure general public consensus (according to a survey conducted in 2013 by the Levada Analytical Centre, 71.5% of Russians support the continued development of nuclear power).

The reprocessing option is the chosen method for dealing with spent reactor fuel with the exception of spent fuel originating from RBMKs, which should be disposed of. Rosatom operates the RT-1 Plant in Chelyabinsk for reprocessing fuel from VVER plants. Its capacity for VVER-440 fuel is 400 t HM/a. The construction of a second reprocessing plant (RT-2) at Krasnoyarsk which has a first line design capacity of 800 t HM/a has been postponed indefinitely. Reprocessed uranium is used for RBMK fuel production. Plutonium obtained at RT-1 is temporarily stored on-site in dioxide form. Rosatom operates several wet AFR fuel storage facilities at RT-1 and RT-2 and at several nuclear power plants with a total capacity of about 16 000 t HM/a (http://www.sibghk.ru/).

Fundamental Research

Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow;

• Institute of High Energy Physics, Protvino;

• Institute of Innovation and Thermonuclear Research, Troitsk.

These major nuclear industry research centres carry out extensive fundamental theoretical and experimental investigations into the properties of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, plasma and laser physics, thermonuclear fusion, development of new types of accelerator and reactor technology, and developing equipment and facilities for physical research.

Applied Research and Development (R&D)

The Russian Scientific Centre (RSC) “Kurchatov Institute”, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre “Institute of Physics and Power Engineering” (SSC FEI), Obninsk;

• The State Scientific Centre “All-Russian Inorganic Materials Research Institute” (SSC VNIINM), Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre Nuclear Reactor Research Institute (SSC NIIAR), Dimitrovgrad;

• Research and Development Institute of Power Engineering (NIKIET), Moscow.

These are the major scientific centres in the field of nuclear science and technology. Theoretical and experimental research performed at these institutes on nuclear and particle physics, neutron physics, thermophysics, hydraulics, material science and nuclear safety have received strong recognition.

The All-Russian Research Institute for Nuclear Power Plant Operation (VNIIAES) of Moscow is the scientific centre for Russian nuclear operating organizations. The principal are of work is assuring safe operation of 1st and 2nd generation nuclear power plants.

Major Reactor and NSSS Design and Research

Experimental Design Bureau “Gidropress” (OKB GP), Podolsk;

• Experimental Design Bureau of Machine Building (OKBM), Nizhny Novgorod.

Starting in 2020–2025, it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in Russia, with a large role for recycled fuels.

The fast reactor BN-1200 is being developed by OKBM Afrikantov in Zarechny, partly funded by a federal nuclear technology programme. The BN-1200 will produce 2900 MWt (1220 MWe gross), has a 60 year design life, simplified refuelling, and burnup of up to 120 GWd/t, with breeding ratio quoted as 1.2 to 1.4. Rosatom’s Scientific and Technical Board reviewed it along with cost estimates in August 2015. Detailed design completion is expected in 2017.

Rosatom of Russia cooperates with other countries in many fields of activities, for example:

Nuclear physics;

• Fundamental research into properties of matter;

• Controlled thermonuclear fusion;

• Physics of semiconductors and high temperature superconductivity;

• Isotopes;

• Technologies of elementary particle accelerators and electrophysical equipment;

• Atomic energy generation and nuclear fuel cycles;

• Radioactive waste management;

• Environmental protection.

Rosatom’s scientists and researchers are engaged in a wide range of studies conducted by the various international centres for nuclear research, including the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the National Accelerator Laboratory and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Russia participates in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor quadripartite project. Rosatom scientists and engineers participate actively in both national and international symposia, seminars and conferences. Rosatom is engaged in the intensive sharing and exchange of information at a bilateral level and through the International Nuclear Information System (INIS). Within the Rosatom structure there is a special institute (Atominform), merging all information flows of the industry and dealing with the problems associated with protection of Rosatom’s rights to the objects of intellectual property resulting from activities financed by the Ministry, as well as legal aspects of the transfer of these rights to third parties.

Recently, the problems of spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, of NPP safety and of environmental protection have been gaining in importance. Russia cooperates with the United States Department of Energy through the International Centre of Ecological Safety in Russia (Rosatom of Russia) and in the United States of America (the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory). Cooperation started in 1993, in management of spent nuclear fuel and of radioactive waste and in rehabilitation of contaminated territories in the north-west of the Russian Federation with Norway, the European Commission, France, Sweden and the United States of America, and these initiatives are still in progress. In 1998, through the Minatom initiative, Russia began to cooperate with France and Germany to construct an EPR reactor in Russia. A joint working group was formed, including experts from Minatom, Framatome and Siemens Company. The European Commission, rendering technical assistance on a gratuitous basis within the frameworks of the TACIS Programme, is one of the leading western partners. In 1998, the implementation of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) between Russia and the European Union was started. Throughout recent years, Russia has taken part in activities in compliance with the Agreement on ISTC.

Extensive activities to tackle problems of non-proliferation and safe dismantling of Russian nuclear weapons and of weapons grade plutonium and uranium conversion are in progress. For example, throughout 1994–1997, research and development activities to fabricate uranium–plutonium fuel for CANDU reactors from weapons grade plutonium were carried out in cooperation with Canada. In 1999, Russia continued cooperation with France, Germany, Italy Japan and the United Kingdom, with the participation of the United States of America, to ensure safe dismantling of nuclear weapons within the frameworks of the intergovernmental agreements on rendering assistance to Russia. At present, the joint Russian–US efforts are focused on decommissioning of weapons grade plutonium production reactors. In 1999, a draft intergovernmental agreement between the Russian Federation and the Netherlands on cooperation in safe dismantling of nuclear weapons in the Russian Federation and in utilization of removed nuclear powered submarines was elaborated.

By convention, the designing, mounting and commissioning of NPPs and large scale production installations in the territories of the CIS and of the other countries form an essential part of the international cooperation of Rosatom of Russia. Ukraine and Kazakhstan are the most active partners of Russia. A draft agreement on cooperation in the nuclear fuel cycle has been elaborated and coordinated recently with Ukraine. Activities to complete construction and to put into operation the Rovno and the Khmelnitsky NPPs are in progress. Russia supplies nuclear fuel to Ukraine, and transports spent nuclear fuel out of the country. Russia cooperates with Kazakhstan in production of nuclear fuel and in other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. An NPP is planned to be constructed on the territory of Kazakhstan.

Rosatom cooperates with Bulgaria, China, Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Slovakia and Syrian Arab Republic in construction and operation of NPPs and large scale production installations. There is also certain progress in Russian–Japanese relations in the field.

Russia takes part in the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). The objective of INPRO is to support the safe, sustainable, economic and proliferation resistant use of nuclear technology to meet the global energy needs of the 21st century. INPRO provides an open international forum for studying the nuclear power option and associated requirements, and its potential application in IAEA Member States. INPRO helps to make adequate competence available for the development and deployment of Innovative Nuclear Energy Systems (INSs), and helps to assist Member States in the coordination of related collaborative projects.

The Russian Federal Supervision of Nuclear and Radiological Safety (Gosatomnadzor) is the Nuclear Regulatory Body of the Russian Federation, with headquarters in Moscow and seven regional offices throughout the country.

The following regulations determine the procedure for nuclear power plant licensing:

Regulations on the order of special permission, issued by Gosatomnadzor of Russia for examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-12-94.

1. Regulations on arranging and carrying out examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-13-94.

2. Regulations on the order of issuing of special temporary permissions for designing nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-14-94.

The stages of obtaining the temporary permission (licence) for NPP unit operation can be represented in brief:

1. Licence demand (submission of application documents);

2. Gosatomnadzor decision on the demand control;

3. Analysis of substantiating materials for demand;

4. Inspection at the NPP;

5. Conclusion on examination of substantiating materials;

6. Conclusion on NPP inspection;

7. General conclusion on obtaining temporary permission (licence);

8. Licence (temporary permission).