In October 2014, the Government of Indonesia enacted Government Regulation No. 79 of 2014 in regard to the National Energy Policy (NEP). NEP is a comprehensive policy which covers both the supply and the demand sides. It serves as the main guideline in national energy management to achieve the security of domestic energy supply.

NEP 2014 would reduce gasoline dependency and increase the use of renewable energy. Figure 1 shows that NEP sets a clear target of the share of each type of primary energy from the year 2025 up to the year 2050, as follows:

The share of new and renewable energy is at least 23% in 2025 and at least 31% in 2050 as long as their economics comply.

• The share of oil is less than 25% in 2025 and less than 20% in 2050.

• The share of coal is minimum 30% in 2025 and minimum 25% in 2050.

• The share of gas is minimum 22% in 2025 and minimum 24% in 2050.

FIG. 1. Energy mix target.

In NEP 2014, nuclear is included in the new energy group, i.e. energy that comes from new technology.

Because utilization of nuclear energy requires high safety and security standards and also considering the impact of nuclear radiation hazards on the environment, nuclear energy utilization is regarded as the last option. However, in-depth studies which have been conducted regarding the technological development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, fulfilling the needs of the growing energy demand by supplying national energy on a large scale, reducing carbon emissions and the urgent national interest suggest that nuclear energy can be utilized.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Specific unit	Estimated available energy sources
	Fossil fuels			Nuclear		Renewables
	Solid1	Liquid1	Gas1	Uranium3	Thorium3	Hydro2	Geothermal1	Solar2	Biomass1
	Million tons	Billion barrel	TSCF	Metric tons	Metric tons	GW	GW	GW	GW
Total amount in specific unit	158 873.02	7.31	151.33	74 398	130 974	94.48	29.54	207.9	56.09
Total amount in exajoule (EJ)	4 656.18	44.72	159.66	2 180.43	3 838.53	2.98	0.93	6.56	1.77

Sources: ¹Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia2016, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources;

² Statistik EBTKE 2016, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources;

³ National Nuclear Energy Agency (Batan).

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

Year	2005	2006		2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015
Final energy consumption
* Total	4.68	4.75		4.93	4.85	5.25	5.72	5.97	6.36	6.42	6.69	5.40
- Solid	0.38	0.52		0.71	0.55	0.48	0.80	0.84	0.91	1.04	1.26	0.40
- Liquids	2.21	2.12		2.14	2.07	2.43	2.64	2.76	3.06	2.97	2.65	2.22
- Gases	0.50	0.48		0.47	0.60	0.69	0.67	0.71	0.733	0.736	1.01	1.02
- Nuclear	0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
- Hydro	0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Other renewables
- Geothermal	0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
- Biomass	1.58	1.62		1.61	1.63	1.64	1.60	1.66	1.64	1.67	1.77	1.77
Energy production
* Total	11.40	12.54		13.05	13.93	14.59	15.52	17.64	18.62	20.16	17.98	17.63
- Solid	4.47	5.68		6.35	7.04	7.50	8.06	10.35	11.31	13.16	10.99	11.07
- Liquids	1.98	1.97		1.95	2.03	2.02	1.88	2.00	2.06	1.89	2.15	1.75
- Gases	3.15	3.11		2.96	3.04	3.23	3.59	3.43	3.35	3.13	2.76	2.74
- Nuclear	0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
- Hydro	0.2	0.14		0.16	0.17	0.16	0.25	0.18	0.18	0.24	0.22	0.20
-Other renewables
Geothermal	0.05	0.05		0.05	0.06	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.09	0.09
Biomass	1.54	1.58		1.57	1.59	1.6	1.65	1.6	1.64	1.67	1.77	1.77
Net import (Import - Export)
* Total	-3.34	-4.38		-4.8	-4.66	-5.59	-5.9	-7.35	-7.87	-8.22	-9.10	-8.77

Source: Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia 2016, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

The Indonesian power sector is governed and regulated by the following law and government regulations:

Law No. 15/1985 regarding electricity;

• Government Regulation No. 3/2005 regarding amendment of Government Regulation No. 10/1985 regarding electricity;

• Ministerial Decree of the Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) No. 9/2005;

• Ministerial Decree of MEMR No.10/2005.

The Directorate General of Electricity (DGE) under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources is primarily responsible for formulating electricity policies and regulations. One responsibility of DGE is to prepare general national electricity planning to meet electricity power demand in a reliable and sustainable way. The National Electricity General Planning (RUKN, Rencana Umum Kelistrikan Nasional) is an integrated policy in the electricity sector comprising projection of electricity demand and supply of power generation, investment and financing, utilization of primary energy resources, as well as new and renewable energy for power generation.

According to Act No. 15 on Electricity (1985) and Government Regulation No. 26 on supply and utilization of power generation (2006), the electricity utility should undertake planning and have an Electricity Power Supply Business Plan (RUPTL, Rencana Umum Pengusahaan Tenaga Listrik).

The structure of the current Indonesian electricity supply industry is shown in Fig. 2. According to Law No. 15/1985, Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), which is a state owned enterprise as well as a limited liability company, is the only authority in the country that provides electricity to all Indonesian people. In serving the national electricity demand, PLN produces electricity from its own power plants, including generator companies which are PLN’s subsidiaries. PLN also acts as the single buyer that purchases electricity from independent power producers (IPP). Other power producers apart from PLN and IPP are “captive powers”, mostly industries that produce power for their own use, and some other smaller companies including cooperatives that sell their electricity directly to consumers.

FIG. 2. The structure of current electricity supply industry.

PLN builds and owns most electricity infrastructure in the country. In terms of generation facilities, PLN owns almost every type of power plant, such as coal fired and oil fired steam power plants, and gas turbine, geothermal, hydroelectric and diesel plants. Most of these generation facilities are under the management of PLN’s subsidiaries, PT Indonesia Power and PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali (PT PJB).

FIG. 3. Current electricity market.

In delivering electricity to its large, medium and small customers while maintaining the quality and reliability of its services, PT PLN developed extensive transmission and distribution networks, including the large scale interconnection power grid in the Java–Bali system.

Furthermore, PT PLN established 10 subsidiaries and 2 joint ventures, some of which include:

1. PT Indonesia Power, whose main business is electricity generation.

2. PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali (PT PJB), whose main business is electricity generation.

3. PT National Electricity Service of Batam Island (PT Pelayanan Listrik Nasional Batam — PLN Batam), that engages in the business of electricity provision for public purposes in the Region Batam Island.

4. PT Indonesia Comnets Plus, whose main business is telecommunication.

5. PT Prima Layanan Nasional Enjiniring (PT PLN Enjiniring), a company in engineering, consultant and construction supervision.

6. PT National Electricity Service Tarakan (PT PLN Tarakan), a provider of electricity for public purposes in Tarakan Island of East Kalimantan.

7. PT Geo Dipa Energi, a joint venture between PT PLN and PT PERTAMINA, whose business is in electricity generation, especially geothermal power plant.

8. PT PLN Batubara, a coal mine and coal supplier for coal power plants.

9. PT PLN Geothermal, a generating company with geothermal energy.

10. Majapahit Holding BV, a holding company in Amsterdam, Holland.

11. PT Haleyora Power, a company that operates and maintains the transmission and distribution system. It established a Joint Venture Company (JVC) in the field of energy provision called PT Energi Pelabuhan Indonesia (EPI), with PT PELINDO II.

Power systems in Indonesia are divided into two types: interconnected systems and isolated systems. The power systems which are well interconnected are the Java–Bali system and the Sumatra system, while the rest are still relatively isolated.

In the end of 2015 the total installed capacity and number of generating units of PLN (holding and subsidiary) was 40 265.26 MW and 5 218 units, with 27 867.88 MW (69.21%) capacity installed in the Java–Bali system. Total installed capacity increased by 2.57% over the previous year.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

								Average annual growth rate (%)
	2005	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2005 to 2015
Capacity of electrical plants (GWe)
Hydro	3.22	3.52	3.51	3.52	3.52	3.53	3.57	0.20%
Steam	6.9	9.45	12.05	14.45	15.55	20.45	21.09	1.51%
Gas	2.72	3.22	2.84	2.97	2.89	3.01	2.98	0.05%
Combine cycle	6.28	6.95	7.83	8.81	8.81	8.89	8.89	0.38%
Geothermal	0.39	0.44	0.44	0.55	0.57	0.57	0.55	0.08%
Diesel PP	2.99	3.27	2.57	2.60	2.85	2.80	3.18	1.31%
Mini gas PP	0.012	0.039	0.026	0	0	0	0	0.15%
Other renewable
Wind	0	0.0003	0.0003	0.0003	0.0004	0.0005	0.0010	14.27%
Solar	0	0.0002	0.0012	0.0062	0.0079	0.0087	0.0089	9.75%
Total	22.51	26.89	29.27	32.90	34.21	39.26	40.27	0.84%
Electricity production (TWh)
Hydro	9.83	15.83	10.32	10.52	13.01	11.16	10.00	-0.66%
Steam	42.27	54.41	62.34	73.82	80.93	89.25	95.82	1.53%
Gas	6.04	7.86	8.25	5.67	5.92	5.45	3.44	-3.60%
Combine cycle	31.27	36.81	40.41	34.57	36.42	38.07	38.71	0.39%
Geothermal	3.01	3.4	3.49	3.56	4.34	4.28	4.39	0.64%
Diesel PP	5.76	5.1	4.01	3.48	3.21	3.55	3.03	-1.89%
Mini gas PP	0	0.073	0.048	0.055	0.38	1.09	1.23	7.82%
Other renewable
Wind	0	0.00002	0.0007	0.0028	0.0055	0	0	3.53%
Solar	0	0.0005	0	0	0	0.0068	0.0053	0.28%
Rent of generator	3.1	8.23	13.89	18.07	19.75	22.44	19.84	1.26%
Buy	26.09	38.08	40.68	50.56	52.22	53.26	57.51	1.56%
Total	127.37	169.77	183.42	200.32	216.19	228.55	233.98	0.84%
Total electricity consumption (TWh)	104.86	142.90	154.18	167.41	181.99	189.30	193.72	0.84%

Source: PLN Statistics 2015, PT PLN (Persero).

The system’s peak load in 2015 was 33 381.08 MW. The peak load of Indonesia increased by 0.18% compared to the previous year. PT PLN produced about 176 472.21 GWh of electricity in 2015, including that produced from power generation units rented from other companies. The total production (including purchase from utilities outside PLN or IPP) during the CY 2015 was 233 981.99 GWh, with an increase of 5 427.08 GWh (2.37%) compared to the previous year. Of this energy production, the energy purchased from other utilities outside PLN amounted to 57 509.77 GWh (24.58%). This increased by 4 251.84 GWh or 7.89% over the previous year. Of the total energy purchased, the greatest parts were 9 010 GWh (15.67%) from PT Paiton Energy Company and 8 219 GWh (14.29%) from PT Jawa Power.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

	2005	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015
Energy consumption per capita (GJ/capita)	15.943	19.57	20.51	22.15	22.45	29.28	23.94
Electricity consumption per capita (kWh/capita)	489.02	619.83	655.23	712.45	753.7	787.6	794.0
Electricity production/Energy production (%)	4.03%	3.94%	3.74%	4.16%	4.21%	4.58%	4.46%
Nuclear/Total electricity(%)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Ratio of external dependency(%)	-0.8	-0.9	-1	-0.25	-0.24	-1.23	-1.62

Sources: PLN Statistics 2015, PT PLN (Persero).

Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia 2016, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

Historical activities related to the nuclear power plant (NPP) programme in Indonesia are shown in Fig. 4.

FIG. 4. Historical activities related to NPP programme.

In 2000–2002, the Indonesian Government performed an Energy Planning Study (Comprehensive Assessment of Different Energy Sources, CADES). This study involved related institutions and ministries, and was reviewed by IAEA. The result of this study was submitted to President Abdurrahman Wahid by IAEA Director General Mohammad ElBaradei in 2003. Based on the result of this study, a NPP in Indonesia was planned to operate beginning in 2016.

In the National Electricity General Plan (2005–2025), nuclear sources shall contribute to electricity generation. In Presidential Decree No. 5 of 2006 on National Energy Policy (2005–2025), the target for the optimum energy mix in 2025 set the contribution of biomass, nuclear, hydro, solar, and wind at more than 5% of total national energy supply. In addition, in accordance with Act No. 17 of 2007 on National Long Term Development Planning, nuclear energy should be implemented during 2015–2019.

In 2009, Indonesia prepared, developed and conducted a self-evaluation of the status of national nuclear infrastructure development. Furthermore, the Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) Mission by the IAEA to review the status of Indonesia’s national nuclear infrastructure was conducted on 23–27 November 2009. The conclusion of INIR mission showed that Indonesia had done extensive preparatory work on most infrastructure issues that would allow the country to make the decision to further consider introduction of nuclear power, i.e. to go from Phase 1 to Phase 2 in the milestone methodology defined by the IAEA.

A comprehensive feasibility study was carried out over three consecutive years from 2011 to 2013 in Bangka Island, Bangka Belitung Province by the Indonesian Government through BATAN and PLN, assisted by both domestic and international consultants. In this study, two selected candidate sites were identified in Bangka Island, i.e. Bangka Barat Regency and Bangka Selatan Regency. Both selected candidate sites are feasible areas for NPPs to be built.

The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources is preparing a White Paper regarding a 5 000 MWe NPP in Indonesia. It is intended to be a source of information and reference for all stakeholders in the decision for the construction of NPPs in Indonesia.

In order to implement a nuclear energy programme, Indonesia so far has not decided to establish a nuclear energy programme implementing organization (NEPIO). It should be noted that some available institutions, such as the National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Research and Technology, Ministry of Industry, Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency (BAPETEN), universities and State Electricity Company have played essential roles similar to those of an NEPIO.

The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources has the role in energy and electricity policy, the Ministry of Research and Technology in science and technology policy, the Ministry of Environment in site and environmental policy, while the Ministry of Industry has this role in national industry and technology transfer policy.

FIG. 5. Institutions involved in nuclear power programme.

FIG. 6. Responsible institutions and their scope of work.

BATAN collaborated with universities that have a role in doing related research and development, including technical consultancy, human resources and training, information and socialization and site preparation. BAPETEN has the role of regulatory body in nuclear regulation and licensing.

BATAN, in cooperation with other relevant government institutions, aims to prepare, develop and conduct a self-evaluation on the national status of 19 basic elements of infrastructure of NPP development. This was started in 2009. Figure 6 shows the responsible institutions and the scope of their work in preparation of infrastructure for a nuclear power programme.

Not applicable.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor unit	Shutdown reason	Decommissioning strategy	Current decommissioning phase	Current fuel management phase	Decommissioning licence	Licence terminate year
n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.

Although the Government of Indonesia has not taken a decision yet, Indonesia actively prepared the first NPP development programme feasibility study and other infrastructure investigative activities.

Indonesia is considering a NPP project through an open bid mechanism. The type of contract for the first NPP is a turnkey approach. Regarding the nuclear fuel cycle, an open fuel cycle is the preferred option. According to BAPETEN Chairman Regulation No. 4/2009 on Nuclear Reactor Decommissioning, the owner has responsibility for decommissioning the NPP, including a provision for financial guarantees. 

Yet, specific plans are still needed for national strategy implementation. The nuclear infrastructure is undergoing development through many related institutions, based on their tasks.

The government plans to develop a roadmap for nuclear energy development. Further explanation of nuclear energy as a last resort in national energy policy will be included in this roadmap for the implementation of nuclear power plants, which will outline technological aspects, fuel type, location, safety, financing, and human resources readiness, along with a multicriteria analysis. Activities and coordinating institutions for roadmap development are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 6. ACTIVITIES AND COORDINATING INSTITUTIONS FOR ROADMAP DEVELOPMENT

No.	Activities	Coordinating institution
1	Research on the development of nuclear technology as well as economic and safety aspects	Ministry of Research Technology and Higher Education
2	Encourage the mastery of nuclear technology in line with the latest developments in nuclear technology advances in the world	Ministry of Research Technology and Higher Education
3	Carry out a multicriteria analysis of NPP implementation covering urgency, scale, supply assurance, energy supply equilibrium, carbon emission reduction, safety factors, and economy of scale by involving views from various stakeholders	Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
4	Develop roadmap of nuclear power plant implementation as the last option in the national energy development priority	Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
5	Build international cooperation related to the study of nuclear power plant development	Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Station/project name	Type	Capacity	Expected construction start year	Expected commercial year
n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.

Construction, operation and decommissioning of a nuclear reactor shall be performed by the responsible party, including a state company, cooperative, and/or private company, as mentioned in Act No. 10 of 1997 as well as Government Regulation No. 2 of 2014 on the Licensing of Nuclear Installation and Nuclear Fuel Utilization.

Regarding the operation of a NPP, the operator should apply for licence or permit from BAPETEN for site, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning activities.

The owner is responsible for the type of contract suitable to implement each NPP project. However, up to now, no organization has been established to be the owner of the first NPP. A study report on project management for the NPP done by BATAN and KHNP shows that a turnkey contract approach is appropriate for the first NPP project.

Local participation in the construction of a nuclear power plant should be maximized. The national industry capability shows that the local participation rate is about 35% for the first NPP and is targeted to increase from 35% to 80% respectively from Step 1 up to Step 5 (Fig. 7).

FIG. 7. Rate of national participation.

To gradually increase the local participation rate from 35% to 80%, the nuclear capability should be improved in the following areas: project management and engineering, other mechanical plant, electrical system, instrumentation and control, turbine island equipment, waste management system, fuel handling system, reactor containment facilities and the nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) auxiliary system.

Policies and requirements for purchasing nuclear equipment and services are not considered yet, but they should follow existing regulations.

The funding scheme for the NPP project in Indonesia is still under consideration. There are three kinds of NPP funding schemes, i.e. conventional scheme, build–operate–transfer (BOT) scheme including its variants (build–own–operate (BOO)/build–lease–transfer (BLT)), and counter trade scheme. A study undertaken by BATAN, PLN and Korea Nuclear and Hydro Power (KHNP) proposed a financing scheme and ownership structure for the first NPP in Indonesia. The funding for the construction of the first NPP may be a combination of a long term loan and equity. The loan would be used mostly to finance procurement of foreign contents, most likely obtained from ECA (Export Credit Agency) and a commercial bank through a loan agreement with the “NPP company” that could be owned by the government. Most of the equity portion would be used to finance local capital expenditures, such as land acquisition, professional fees, mobilization, certification, etc. The equity will be sourced partly from the public utility’s own funds, which might be PLN or another state owned enterprise/company, and from private investors who can become partners.

Funding for spent fuel handling, waste management, decommissioning and final disposal is the responsibility of the owner.

Presently, an integrated electrical grid system exists in Java–Bali–Madura and Sumatera. The Java–Bali–Madura system is interconnected with 500 kV and 150 kV lines, while Sumatera is interconnected with 275 kV and 150 kV lines. Power transmission in Jawa–Bali and Sumatera will be integrated. PT PLN plans to expand the interconnection project through a high voltage direct current (HVDC) electricity transmission system. The combining of the two trusted interconnections is expected to facilitate cheap and efficient energy use. The interconnection system will be designed to distribute 3 000 MW from Sumatera to Jawa–Bali. It will consist of an AC to DC power converter station in Muara Enim, South Sumatera. DC power will then be converted to AC (inverter station) in Bogor, West Java. In case of Bangka NPP availability, this power transmission integration will ease the electricity distribution from Sumatera to Java.

Currently, in Kalimantan Island, a 150 kV line interconnects the provinces of Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan and East Kalimantan. However, West Kalimantan province is still isolated from the other provinces.

There are several locations in Indonesia that were identified as potential sites for NPPs. Figure 8 shows the location of each site and recent status regarding surveys of the site: Muria Peninsula, Banten, East Kalimantan, Bangka Island, West Kalimantan and Batam Island. Specifically for Batam Island, a site presurvey was started in 2015. All of the potential sites were located in coastal areas owing to cooling water source availability.

In conducting the site survey and evaluation, IAEA guidance and BAPETEN regulations related to the safety and non-safety aspects and other considerations are used as the basis for safety and non-safety analysis.

FIG. 8. Current status of NPP site study.

Muria Site

In particular, a feasibility Study for the Muria Peninsula was completed in 1996, identifying three candidate sites: Ujung Lemahabang (ULA), Ujung Watu (UW) and Ujung Grenggengan (UG). Two sites were preferred, namely ULA and UW. Site evaluation of the ULA preferred site has already been done by NEWJEC in 1991–1996, while for UW preferred site, the evaluation is not done yet. Nonetheless, international guidance and national regulation give rise to the necessity of further intensive investigation of the ULA site — mainly volcanology, geotechnical and seismotectonic aspects. Figure 9 shows the transportation infrastructure of the Muria site.

FIG. 9. Transportation infrastructure of Muria site.

Banten Site

Based on a preliminary study from 2008 until now, there are two potential sites in Banten, namely Pulo Panjang and Kramatwatu-Bojonegara. This study covers regional and near-regional analysis.

The characteristics of both sites are as follows:

Safe from external hazard (volcanic, surface faulting, seismicity, extreme meteorology and coastal flooding);

• Not located in an area at risk of pyroclastic density current (PDC) from a capable volcano;

• Distance from supposed capable faults > 5 km;

• Peak ground acceleration (PGA) value < 0.4 g;

• Not an area that has tornado events or tropical cyclones;

• Not flooded by tsunami waves caused by historical tectonic earthquake and Krakatoa volcanic activity (1883);

• Not inundated by sea level rise due to global warming (eustacy) in 100 year projection;

• Not in urban and population centres and have a distance to outer border of population centre > 1 km;

• Safe from human activities that have potential safety threat.

Figure 10 shows transport infrastructure of the Banten site.

FIG. 10. Transport infrastructure at Banten site.

Bangka Site

The feasibility study carried out in Bangka Island consisted of three phases in three consecutive years from 2011 to 2013. Based on the study, there are two areas of interest in the Bangka site: Site 1 (Teluk Manggris-Tanah Merah, Mentok, West Bangka Regency), and Site 2 (Tj. Berani-Tj Krasak, Sebagian, Simpang Rimba, South Bangka Regency). A licensing document consisting of Site Data Report (SDR), Site Evaluation Report (SER), Site Data Information (SDI), concept of Environmental Impact Analysis Report (EIAR), and draft of NPP Master Plan was done in 2013.

Area 1 can be reached from Pangkal Pinang through Kelapa by paved road of approximately 140 km, then for about 4 to 6 km by unpaved road, of which only 3 km can be accessed by car and the rest by motorcycle or by a four wheel drive vehicle. Meanwhile, Area 2 can be reached from Pangkal Pinang through Sungai Selan, Bangka Kota, Simpang Rimba, Permis Village, Rajik Village and Sebakin Village by paved road of 83.5 km. There are 5 major harbours and one medium airport. Bangka site transport infrastructure is provided in Fig. 11.

FIG. 11. Bangka site transport infrastructure.

Based on the feasibility study performed, West and South Bangka are considered feasible for a NPP site due to the conditions for site acceptance.

The ultimate capacity for the West Bangka site is 6 × 1000 MWe, and that for the South Bangka site is 4 × 1000 MWe.

West Kalimantan Site

Based on the conformity analysis of Ketapang and Kayong Utara Regency, there are three areas of interest located in Ketapang Regency and another area of interest located in Kayong Utara Regency. By using a weighting approach, these areas of interest are ranked as follows: Kendawung District (Ketapang Regency) as first rank, Sukadana District (Kayong Utara Regency) as second rank, and Matan Hilir Selatan District (Ketapang Regency) as last rank.

From a geological point of view, each of the potential sites has a relatively stable formation, with reasonably similar lithology conditions and a safe distance from volcanic hazards. More specifically, in Kendawangan Subdistrict, granite and volcanic rock was found. The land cover of Ketapang Regency is dominated by peat with a depth of more than 3 meters.

FIG. 12. Potential NPP site at Ketapang Regency.

East Kalimantan Site

Pre-survey activities in 2007–2008 covered 8 potential sites, namely: (1) Tanjung Prapat and Tanjung Saban, Paser Regency; (2) Babulu Laut, Penajam Paser Utara Regency; (3) the industrial area of Kariangau, Balikpapan; (4) Sandaran Subdistrict, Kutai Timur Regency; (5) Sanggata Subdistrict, Kutai Timur Regency; (6) Pulau Derawan Subdistrict, Berau Regency; (7) Talisayan, Berau Regency and (8) Biduk-biduk, Berau Regency. In 2009, pre-survey activities only covered Balikpapan, Kutai Timur Regency and Berau Regency, which yielded four interest areas, namely: (1) Tanjung Batu, Berau Regency; (2) Talisayan, Berau Regency; (3) Tanjungpagar, Kutai Timur Regency and (4) Kariangau, Balikpapan.

Generally, all the potential sites located in East Kalimantan are safe from volcanic and seismic hazards. From a lithological point of view, Balikpapan is composed of Miocene–Pliocene and Holocene rocks. Meanwhile, Kutai Timur Regency is constituted by Eocene–Pliocene rocks. A compact bedrock has been found in Berau Regency that consists of Domaring Formation and Sajau Formation. Alluvial sedimentation has dispersed along the coastal line of each potential site. Berau Regency has several major rivers, namely the Berau, Kelay and Segah rivers. These rivers have a potential to cause river flooding at the estuary due to the slope morphology.

Balikpapan is a city with well developed infrastructure. Road infrastructure is mostly well interconnected within the region. There is an airport, Sepinggan airport, which up to now was the main access point to enter East Kalimantan Province.

Land transportation at Kutai Timur Regency consists of several routes. The condition of the road along Samarinda Sangatta is fairly good as a main route. For air transportation, there are two airports: Kaltim Prima Coal (KPC) airport at Tanjung Bara and Pertamina airport at Sangkimah. There is also an existing seaport and harbour in the area.

FIG. 13. Potential sites at East Kalimantan.

Meanwhile, at the Berau Regency, land transportation from Kutai Timur Regency is fairly good and is used as the province’s main route. Sea transportation is used to connect to other regions such as from Kota Tanjung Batu to Batu Putih. This route is relatively more comfortable and economical. Air transportation at the Berau Regency serves regional movement from Berau to Balikpapan, Tarakan, Tanjung Selor and Samarinda through Kalimarau airport (4 km from Tanjung Redeb).

Batam Site

With the intention of developing alternative energy infrastructure as an effort to increase investment opportunity, Batam Indonesia Free Zone Authority (BIFZA), in cooperation with National Nuclear Energy Agency (Badan Tenaga Nuklir Nasional, BATAN), plans to develop nuclear technology, especially in the energy sector. Following up on this plan, a series of preliminary studies on nuclear power plant development was carried out, which included siting reviews. In order to identify potential sites, pre-survey activities were performed in 2015 covering Batam, Rempang and Galang islands, also called the BARELANG islands. The BARELANG islands are located at 0°25'29?–1°15'00? N and 103°34'35?–104°26'04?E as shown in Fig. 14. The area covered by the BARELANG islands is 715 km², which consists of Batam Island (415 km²), Rempang Islands (165.83 km²), Galang Island (80 km²) and Galang Baru Island (32 km²).

The pre-survey activities were carried out using secondary data which include DEM satellite imagery of the BARELANG islands, morphological map, geological map, hydrogeological map, etc. At first, general criteria were applied as follows:

Maximum distance to the shoreline is 3 km;

• Not at a site that is considered a permanent swamp;

• Not at a site that is designated as a protected/conservation forest;

• Minimum distance to the outside boundary of dense population area (> 25 000 people) is 1 km;

• Maximum distance to the airport is 8 km;

Afterward, in accordance with IAEA safety standards, specific criteria were then applied, which include capable fault and pyroclastic flow identification. In terms of tectonic and seismicity, BARELANG islands is considered a tectonically non-active area. There is no active fault identified. Nevertheless, based on a geological map published by Indonesia Geological Agency, faulting exists in Tanjungkerotang Formation (Tmpt) on Rempang Island and the northern part of Galang Island (Fig. 15).

The pre-survey activities yielded five interest areas: Kelurahan Rempang (Tanjung Kelingking)–Rempang Island, and Kelurahan Sijantung–western coast of Galang Island, Tanjung Batu and Tanjung Ramai (Desa Karas)–eastern coast of Galang Island.

FIG. 14. Potential sites at Batam.

FIG. 15. Potential sites at Batam.

In order to survey public perception concerning utilization of NPPs in Indonesia, a poll of 3 000 respondents was conducted in November 2010, resulting in 59.7% agreement on the use of NPPs in Indonesia, and with 26.1% who did not agree and 14.2% who abstained. After the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident in 2011, a poll was conducted with the same number of respondents and the result decreased to 49.5% who were in agreement. In 2012, a poll involving 5 000 respondents was conducted and it showed that public acceptance increased to 52%. A poll in 2013 showed that public acceptance for utilization of NPPs in Indonesia increased to 60.4%. A poll in 2014 found that public acceptance for utilization of NPP in Indonesia significantly increased, and 72% were found to be in agreement. In 2015, another survey was produced that indicated that 75.3% support the construction of nuclear power plants. Results of a poll commissioned by an independent survey agency in 2016 reveal that 77.53% of Indonesian people agree with the government’s plan to develop nuclear power plants.

Research and development (R&D) in nuclear science and technology are mainly implemented by BATAN. Nuclear R&D activities are classified into reactor safety, radiation safety, environmental safety, radiation and radioisotope applications, and radioactive waste management. R&D activities are implemented in several nuclear complexes as described in the following paragraphs.

SERPONG NUCLEAR COMPLEX

There are many centres in the Serpong Nuclear Complex for research and development and engineering in nuclear science and technology that have been built with the objectives to support development of the nuclear industry and for preparation, development as well as operation of nuclear power plants in Indonesia.

The development of installations and laboratories of the Serpong Nuclear Complex was conducted in three phases beginning in 1983 and fully completed in 1992. The area covers about 25 hectares and is located in the National Centre for Research of Science and Technology (PUSPIPTEK), Serpong.

The main facility in the area is the GA. Siwabessy Multipurpose Research Reactor with a power of 30 MW. The installation is used for Production of Research Reactor Fuel Elements, Radioisotopes and Radiopharmaceuticals Installation, Experimental Fuel Element Installation, Radioactive Waste Processing Installation, Radiometallurgy Installation, Reactor Safety and Engineering Installation, Facility for Development of Informatics and Computation, Nuclear Mechanic–Electronic Installation, Neutron Spectrometry Installation, as well as Storage for Spent Fuel Elements and Contaminated Materials Installation.

BANDUNG NUCLEAR COMPLEX

The Bandung Nuclear Complex was initially constructed in the early 1960s on an area of 3 hectares and is where the first research reactor in Indonesia was built. The activities conducted cover the utilization of the reactor for research and fostering of expertise, R&D on basic materials, radioisotopes and labelled compounds, instrumentation and radiometry analysis techniques and supervision of occupational radiation safety and environment.

In addition, nuclear medicine in Indonesia was first developed in Bandung Nuclear Complex. The activities in nuclear medicine have since then been further developed in several hospitals in Indonesia.

In order to support the R&D activities, the Bandung Nuclear Complex utilizes various facilities, including the Triga Mark II Reactor which started with a power of 250 kW in 1965. The power of this reactor was increased to 1000 kW in 1971 and further to 2000 kW in 2000.

Other facilities in this area are the laboratories for physics, chemistry and biology, production of isotopes and labelled compounds.

YOGYAKARTA NUCLEAR COMPLEX

The Yogyakarta Nuclear Complex was established in 1974 on 8.5 hectares. The Centre for Science and Accelerator Technology of and the Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology are located within this area.

The activities conducted cover R&D in nuclear physics, chemistry, technology of low and medium energy particle accelerators, process technology, analysis of nuclear materials and reactors, as well as the use of the reactor for research and fostering of expertise.

In addition, supervision of occupational radiation safety and of environmental radioactivity is also conducted. Meanwhile, the Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology conducts programmes of education in the field of nuclear science and technology.

The facilities in this area are the Kartini Research Reactor with a power of 100 kW, complemented with a subcritical assembly, a laboratory for pure materials research, accelerators, laboratories for nuclear physics and chemistry, a work health and safety facility, library facilities, as well as laboratory facilities for education.

PASAR JUM'AT NUCLEAR COMPLEX

The Pasar Jum'at Nuclear Complex was built in 1966 on an area of about 20 hectares. In this area, the Centre for Application of Isotopes and Radiation, Centre for Technology of Radiation Safety and Metrology, Centre for Technology of Nuclear Geology, Centre for Education and Training and Centre for Dissemination and Partnerships are located.

The following facilities, among others, are in this area: three units of Co-60 Gamma Irradiators, two electron beam machines, laboratory for uranium processing, radiation measuring equipment, chemistry, biology, process and hydrology, education and training facility as well as a permanent exhibition for nuclear science and technology.

MONITORING STATIONS FOR MICROEARTHQUAKES AND METEOROLOGY JEPARA (CENTRAL JAVA) AND BANGKA ISLAND

Since 1982, a monitoring station for microearthquakes and meteorology was built and operated in the Ujung Watu village in Jepara (Central Java). The microearthquake monitoring station records the data on volcanic as well as tectonic earthquakes, whereas the meteorology station records air pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature, humidity and solar radiation.

In addition, since 2011 an identical facility has been operated on Bangka Island to record the data on microearthquakes and meteorology on the Bangka site. There are 10 microearthquake monitoring stations and two meteorology monitoring stations.

Indonesia participates in the development of nuclear reactor systems through the INPRO project. There is also a plan to develop HTR design with cogeneration purposes.

Indonesia has signed a number of international agreements as well as conducted bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the field of nuclear power development. A complete list of international agreements and cooperative activities is provided in Appendix 1.

Profile of the Regulatory Body

The Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency (BAPETEN) is a non-department government institution which is under and responsible to the President. BAPETEN is responsible for implementing the surveillance of all activities relating to the use of nuclear energy in Indonesia through regulation, licensing and inspection in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. BAPETEN was founded on 8 May 1998 and began actively working on 4 January 1999.

The main task of BAPETEN is to conduct surveillance of all activities that use nuclear energy by managing regulation, licensing and inspections.

The functions of BAPETEN are:

Formulation of national policies in the field of supervision of the use of nuclear energy; preparation and creation of national plans and programmes in the field of supervision of nuclear energy utilization;

• The management and preparation of regulations and the review of the implementation of nuclear safety, radiation safety, and security of nuclear materials;

• Implementation of licensing and inspection of construction and operation of nuclear reactors, nuclear installations, nuclear materials facilities, and sources of radiation as well as the development of nuclear preparedness; implementation of cooperation in the field of monitoring of the use of nuclear energy by government agencies or other organizations both inside and outside of the territory of Indonesia;

• Implementation of surveillance and control of nuclear materials; implementation of guidance and information concerning the efforts to ensure the safety and health of the workers and members of the public as well as environmental protection;

• Implementation of the improvement of human resources development and quality in the BAPETEN; implementation of administrative guidance, control and supervision within BAPETEN environment;

• Implementation of other tasks given by the President.

Role and Responsibility of the Regulatory Body

BAPETEN, as an independent regulatory body, has responsibility to ensure that any activity related to the use of any nuclear energy is performed to maintain the safety, security, and peace, as well as the health of the workers and the public, and also the protection of the environment. These are administered by:

1. Drafting and establishing nuclear safety regulations;

2. Controlling nuclear installations and nuclear materials through licensing and inspection systems that covered all stages of NPP establishment (from site evaluation to decommissioning stages);

3. Controlling the use of radioactive materials and other radiation sources through licensing and inspection systems.

Scope of Activities

Nuclear Energy Act UU No. 10 of 1997 explains the important supervisory function in protecting public health and the health of the environment: the creation of regulations, licensing and inspections. This supervisory function is the main activity carried out by BAPETEN.

Making Rules: BAPETEN is responsible for the creation of rules and safety regulations. Representing the government, BAPETEN cooperates with the House of Representatives in making government regulations in relation to the safe use of radiation sources. BAPETEN also assists the President of the Republic of Indonesia in making Presidential Decrees.

As a regulatory agency, BAPETEN has issued more than 30 recommendations and safety instructions in the use of nuclear energy. All regulations and instructions can be found on the BAPETEN web site.

Licensing: Use of radioactive materials and radiation emitting devices without prior permission of BAPETEN is prohibited. As of June 2005, BAPETEN had issued 3162 permits for industrial activities, 2958 permits for medical activities and 3383 working licences for Radiation Protection Officers. BAPETEN continues to try to raise awareness of radiation safety.

Inspection: BAPETEN conducts supervisory inspections to ensure compliance of the users with the safety regulations and provisions relevant to the permit conditions.

Organization of the Regulatory Body

BAPETEN is headed by a chairman assisted by two deputies and one executive secretary. It has seven directorates, two centres for assessment, three bureaus, an Internal Affairs department and an Education and Training Centre, as shown in Fig. 14. According to the regulation, the Chairman of BAPETEN is directly responsible to the President.

FIG. 16. Organization chart of the regulatory body.

Based on Government Regulation (GR) No. 2 of 2014 on the Licensing of Nuclear Installation and Nuclear Fuel Utilization, which replaced Government Regulation No. 43 in 2006, the construction and operation of a nuclear reactor can be performed after obtaining a licence from BAPETEN. The licence will be issued in the following stages: Site Permit, Construction Permit, Operating Licence and Decommissioning Permit.

The diagram of the Entire Licensing Process is shown in Fig. 17.



FIG. 17. Diagram of the entire licensing process.

The procedure for obtaining a licence consists of a five stage licensing procedure and evaluation period:

1. Site permit/licence (maximum 2 years);

2. Construction permit/licence (maximum 2 years);

3. Commissioning permit/licence (maximum 1 year);

4. Operating licence (maximum 2 years);

5. Decommissioning permit (maximum 1 year).