The energy sector contributes to the development of Romania, influencing the economy, quality of life and the environment. In order to sustain consumer expectations for the long term, the Romania's energy sector seeks to become more robust from the economic point of view, more advanced from the technological point of view and overall less polluting.

The main energy policy documents of Romania are the Energy Strategy of Romania 2021-2023, with the perspective of 2050 and the Integrated National Plan in the field of Energy and Climate Change 2021-2030 (NECP). Romania's energy policy is aligned with European policies. The energy strategy reflects the vision of the Romanian authorities for the development of the energy sector with the conditions of sustainability, economic growth and accessibility, in the context of implementing the new legislative package clean energy for all Europeans 2030 and joining the European Ecological Pact 2050. The development of the energy sector is part of Romania's development process. The growth of the energy sector means the use of non-polluting innovative technologies in all subsectors of the energy system and the maintenance of Romania as an energy supplier state, a factor of energy stability in the southern European area; the building new production capacities based on state-of-the-art clean technologies; the transition from solid fossil fuels (coal, etc.) to natural gas and renewable energy sources; the refurbishment and modernization of existing production capacities and their compliance with environmental norms, strengthening of energy transmission and distribution infrastructure networks; the encouraging of decentralized energy production; the encouraging of the growth of energy-efficient domestic consumption; and energy export. The national energy system will thus be stronger, safer and more stable, and Romania will maintain its role as a provider of energy security in the region.

Romania's Energy Strategy 2021-2030 and NECP are considering the option of developing new generation of nuclear reactors, such as Generation IV nuclear reactors and or small modular reactors (SMR) after 2030, as a way to increase the share of energy with low GHG emissions.

An important aspect of the development of the Romanian energy sector is also to ensure a fair energy transition, by managing the social and economic effects of the transition. The Energy Strategy has eight fundamental strategic objectives that structure the entire analysis and planning approach for the period 2021-2030 and the time horizon of 2050. Achieving the objectives requires a balanced approach to the development of the national energy sector, both from the perspective of national and European regulations, as well as investment spending. The objectives of the strategy support the achievement of the national targets set for 2030, respectively:

• 43.9% reduction of emissions related to the Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) sectors, compared to the level of 2005, respectively 2% of emissions related to non-ETS sectors compared to the level of 2005;

• 30.7% share of energy from renewable resources in gross final energy consumption;

• 40.4% reduction in final energy consumption compared to the PRIMES 2007 projection;

• 15% degree of interconnection of electrical networks.

The objectives of the Energy Strategy are:

1. Modernization of the energy governance system and institutional capacity;

2. Clean energy and energy efficiency;

3. Ensuring access to electricity and heat for all citizens;

4. Protecting vulnerable consumers and reducing energy poverty;

5. Competitive energy markets, the basis of a competitive economy;

6. Increasing the quality of education in the field of energy and continuous training of qualified human resources;

7. Ensuring that Romania is aregional energy security provider;

8. Increasing Romania's energy contribution toregional and European markets by capitalizing on national primary energy resources.

According to the vision and the eight fundamental objectives of the Energy Strategy, the development of the energy sector is directly proportional to the realization of investment projects in strategic sectors of the Romania's energy system. Electricity generation based on low-carbon technologies, in which the transition from solid fossil fuels to natural gas as a transition fuel, renewable energy resources and nuclear power are priority projects, which together with network strengthening projects with smart technologies, storage, hydrogen utilization and energy efficiency measures will help to achieve the fundamental goals. The process of assessing the impact of the Energy Strategy on the environment was completed on 4 November 2020, by issuing the Environmental Permit by the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests, and in the next period the Energy Strategy will be approved by law by the Romanian Parliament. The Integrated National Plan in the field of Energy and Climate Change 2021-2030 (NECP) represents Romania's commitment to the joint European effort to meet the targets set in the field of energy and climate, for 2030 and 2050, respectively, being developed in accordance with Regulation (European Union) 2018/1999 on the Governance of the Energy Union, on five dimensions (energy security, internal energy market, energetic efficiency, decarbonization and research, innovation and competitiveness). NECP is the instrument through which the European Union respond to the commitment made in the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. Through NECP Romania defines its own effort to achieve the objectives set at the European Union in the field of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, developing renewable energy resources and putting energy efficiency at the center of industrial policies, taking into account national priorities, available resources, the need to ensure a sustainable transition for industry and consumers and the institutional capacity to implement. NECP integrates with priority the objectives and directions established by the specific strategies in the field of energy and respectively of the climate changes, relying at the same time on the relevant programmatic documents for other economic sectors, such as the transport sector, agriculture, industry, and research. The main objectives of NECP for 2030 are presented in the table below:

Source: Integrated National Plan in the field of Energy and Climate Change 2021-2030

According to NECP, Romania aims to supplement the interconnection capacities by 2030, taking into account the cost-benefit analysis from socio-economic and environmental points of view. Implementation of projects of common interest (PCIs) and the realization of other projects for the development of the electricity transmission network are included in the Electricity Transmission Network(RET)Development Plan for the period 2018-2027.

This will help considerably to achieve Romania's target to increase the degree of interconnection of electricity networks to at least 15.4% by 2030. NECP was completed in April 2020, and the environmental assessment process was completed in March 2021. NECP was approved by Government Decision no. 1076/2021 and published in the Official Gazette no. 963 bis /08.10.2021.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

*Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: metric tonnes; hydro, renewable: TW.

**All information about national resources in Romania is classified.

n.a.: Data not applicable.

TABLE 2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Total energy derived from primary and secondary generation sources. Figures do not reflect potential heat output that may result from electricity co-generation.

: data not available.

Source(s): United Nations Statistical Division, OECD/IEA and IAEA RDS-1

The National Power System (NPS) represents all the power plants that are involved in the production, transport, distribution and operation of electricity.

NPS operations depend on the situation of these installations and on issues related to energy resources, market elements, and the requirements of regulations in the field. Romania has a diversified mix of electricity sources, based mostly on domestic energy resources. The diversity of the energy mix has allowed SEN to remain resilient, overcoming the stressful situations generated by extreme weather conditions.

The coal and gas-fired power plants covered about 35% of electricity demand, Hydropower is the main source of clean energy, which together with other renewable energy sources (RES), covers approximately 45% of Romania's final electricity consumption. Hydropower plants have a high efficiency, and the energy stored in storage lakes is available almost instantly, which gives them a key role in the balancing market.

Nuclear power, a low carbon energy source currently accounting for a significant share of total national electricity production (about 18%), is a core component of Romania's energy mix, supported by an internal infrastructure covering an open nuclear fuel cycle, which allows the country to have a high degree of independence in the production of nuclear energy.

Romania has rich and varied renewable energy resources as well, including biomass, hydropower, geothermal energy, wind energy, and solar and photovoltaic energy. Development potential in the biomass sector is still high, especially through efficiency and the introduction of new technologies, such as biorefineries and biogas production capacities. Judicious management of the forests is a basic condition for the use of wood for energy. Geothermal resources are only marginally exploited in Romania, but there is a potential for increasing the use of these resources in the coming decades.

In the next period, the main challenge for the energy sector is to reconfigure the energy system and reform the energy market in accordance with the national objectives and targets assumed by Romania through the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030. An additional long-term challenge for the Romanian energy sector will be to contribute to the achievement of the European Union's goal of becoming the first climate-neutral continent, with "net zero" emissions by 2050.

The transmission and system operator, Transelectrica SA, coordinates the power flows of the NPS by controlling dispatchable production units. The dispatchable units are those which, from the National Energy Dispatcher, can be switched on, switched off, or adjusted in terms of power. Although dispatching involves additional costs for manufacturers, it makes it possible to balance NPS in extreme situations. Of the total gross power available of nearly 20 000 MW, only 3000 MW are non-dispersible.

In Romania, the distribution of electricity is a regulated activity being carried out by eight distribution operators to which the State has leased the power distribution service. In this sector, sustained investment is required to achieve a high level of performance, in line with consumer expectations as well as their degree of supportability. Electricity distribution operators attach great importance to investments in upgrading and developing maintenance networks and operations, which aim to improve the quality of consumer services and food security, among others.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

: data not available.

Source: United Nations Statistical Division, OECD/IEA and IAEA RDS-1

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

*Latest available data.

Source: RDS-1andRDS-2

: data notavailable.

Dates of reference in the Romanian nuclear energy field:

1. 1968 Launch of the Nuclear National Programme.

2. 1970 Inauguration of the Heavy Water Pilot and Nuclear Power Plants and Facilities Design Division.

3. 1971 Founding of the Institute for Nuclear Technologies as a technological support for the Nuclear Power Programme in Romania.

4. 1976 Completion of the Romanian Canadian feasibility study for the CANDU system in Romania.

5. December 1978 Contracts between ROMENERGO and AECL for the takeover of the CANDU system licence and for design and procurement of the nuclear equipment for Unit 1 are concluded.

6. February1981 Contracts between ROMENERGO Ansaldo (Italy) and General Electric (USA) for the conventional part (BOP) of Unit 1 are concluded.

7. 1982 First containment concrete is poured (reactor building base slab).

8. December 1985 Delivery on-site and installation of the Calandria vessel for the Cernavoda NPP Unit 1.

9. 1989 Installation of the fuel channels at the Cernavoda NPP Unit 1.

10. December 1989 Romanian revolution; the Cernavoda NPP Unit 1 is 45% complete.

11. July 1990 The first PRE-OSART mission of the IAEA to the Cernavoda NPP, which leads to the recommendation of creating a management team with international experience in nuclear power projects.

12. August 1991 The management contract with AECL Ansaldo Consortium (AAC) is concluded.

13. May June 1995 The fuel loading of Cernavoda NPP Unit 1.

14. 16 April 1996 The first criticality of the Unit 1 reactor.

15. 11 July 1996 The first synchronization to the grid of Unit 1.

16. 2 December 1996 Cernavoda NPP Unit 1 is declared to be in commercial operation.

17. 30 June 1997 The transfer of Unit 1 management and operation responsibilities from AAC to Romanian personnel.

18. 2 July 1998 The creation of the national company Societatea Nationala Nuclearelectrica S.A. (SNN) by dividing the RENEL energy conglomerate, with SNN on one side and the Autonomous Authority for Nuclear Activities (RAAN) on the other.

19. 30 September 1999 Cernavoda NPP Unit 1 ranks tenth in world capacity.

20. February 2003 Canadian, French, Italian and US loan agreements are signed with Societe Generale, Credit Lyonnais and the Romanian Bank for Development for Unit 2 completion.

21. 24 March 2003 The contract for the completion and commissioning of Cernavoda NPP Unit 2 enters into force.

22. 30 March 2004 European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) loan is approved by the European Commission, subject to the implementation of a well defined improvement package.

23. December 2005 The completion of Unit 2's main systems and transfer of procedures to the commissioning team, comprising a total number of 154 systems.

24. 6 May 2007 The initiation of the chain reaction (criticality) at Unit 2 at 23:25.

25. 7 August 2007 The first synchronization of Unit 2 with the national power system, at 25% of the reactor's capacity of 700 MW(e), at 17:21.

26. 12 September 2007 Unit 2 reaches full power for the first time during commissioning tests.

27. 28 September 2007 The management of Unit 2 is turned over to SNN.

28. 5 October 2007 The official inauguration of Cernavoda NPP Unit 2.

29. 25 March 2009 Incorporation and registration of EnergoNuclear project company, responsible for the construction of Units 3 and 4.

30. November 2010 The European Commission granted a positive opinion on Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4 in compliance with the provisions of article 41 of the EURATOM Treaty, which certifies the application of technical and nuclear safety criteria.

31. 25 September 2013 The environment agreement for continuation of the construction works and completion of Units 3 and 4 is obtained.

32. November 2013 Listing of SNN shares on the Bucharest Stock Exchange.

33. August 2014 The Romanian Government and the SNN general meeting of shareholders approve the strategy for the continuation of the project and the launching of a new selection procedure for investors.

34. November 2014 China General Nuclear Power Corporation (CGN) is declared the selected investor for Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4 after passing the selection procedure.

35. November 2015 SNN and CGN sign the memorandum of understanding for the continuation of Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4, and negotiations begin on the investment documents (the Articles of Incorporation and Investors Agreement), negotiations for which have been extended until the present day by successive resolutions of the SNN GMS (General Meeting of Shareholders). Both Romania and China are committed to the completion of the project.

36. September 2017 SNN GMS approves the initiation of the first phase of the refurbishment of Cernavoda NPP Unit 1, commissioned in 1996.

37. April 2019 SNN GMS approved the Preliminary Investors Agreement on Units 3 and 4 at Cernavoda NPP concluded between China General Nuclear Power Corporation and CGN Central and Eastern Europe Investment (RO) CO.S.A. and SN Nuclearelectrica SA.

38. 8 May 2019 SNN, China General Nuclear Power Corporation and CGN Central and Eastern Europe Investment signed the Preliminary Investors Agreement on Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4 Project.

39. 29 July 2019 The GMS approved the empowerment of the SNN Board of Directors to approve the modification of the deadlines set out in the Preliminary Investors Agreement on Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4 Project.

40. 12 June 2020 The GMS approved the abrogation of the strategy for the continuation of Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4 project, the ceasing of negotiations with CGN as well as the empowerment of the SNN Board of Directors to initiate the necessary undertaking for the analysis and crystallization of the strategic options regarding the construction of additional nuclear energy production capacities.

41. 21 September 2020 SNN was included in the FTSE Russell Index of the London Stock Exchange in the context of Romania's transition to the status of a Frontier Market.

42. 9 October 2020 Romania and the United States of America initialized an extended intergovernmental agreement for cooperation in relation to strategic projects for Romania such as Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4, the refurbishment of Unit 1 as well as in other civil nuclear projects.

43. 13 January 2021 The U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) and SN Nuclearelectrica SA (SNN) announced the awarding by USTDA of a non-refundable grant which has a value of US $1,277,115 that aims to fund the cost of services required in connection with the delivery of technical assistance related to identifying and performing a preliminary assessment of new potential SMR compatible nuclear sites in Romania, outside on Cernavoda NPP.

Source: www.nuclearelectrica.ro

FIG. 1. The main players involved in the nuclear power programme.

The main institutional pillars of the Romanian nuclear field are:

1. The energy sector is under the supervision of the Ministry Energy which formulates policies and strategies. The Ministry of Energy establishes the national strategy in the energy field and is the major shareholder in the nuclear energy production sector, nuclear research and engineering, nuclear fuel and heavy water production.

2. The Ministry of the Environment, Waters and Forests is the central authority for environmental protection and has specific responsibilities in this domain in the licensing and control of nuclear installations.

3. The National Commission for Nuclear Activities Control (CNCAN) is the nuclear safety and security regulatory authority of Romania, responsible for the regulation, licensing and control of nuclear activities, ensuring the peaceful use of nuclear energy and the protection of the public and workers from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. CNCAN is a public interest institution under the coordination of the Romanian Prime-Minister through the General Secretariat of the Government.

4. The Nuclear and Radioactive Waste Agency (ANDR) is a specialized authority of the central public administration, acting as a legal entity coordinated by the Ministry of Energy. It is responsible for promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy and the related research and development programmes. ANDR is the national competent authority responsible for coordinating the pre-disposal management of spent fuel and radioactive waste from operations and decommissioning, being responsible for its safe disposal.

5. SNN is the owner and operator of the Cernavoda NPP. The company includes two subsidiaries (not legal persons), one for nuclear power production (Cernavoda NPP) and one for nuclear fuel production (Nuclear Fuel Plant FCN Pitesti). SNN is a government owned company, coordinated by the Ministry of Energy. The company was listed on the Bucharest Stock Exchange in 2013 and, in its current shareholding structure, the Romanian State (through the Ministry of Energy) owns 82.49% of the shares. The remaining percentage of 17.50% is owned by other shareholders. Its main activities include electrical power and heat production, NPP construction and commissioning and nuclear fuel fabrication. SNN is also the sole owner of the Energonuclear project company which was set up for the completion of the project for Cernavoda Units 3 and 4.

6. The state owned nuclear energy company (RATEN) is the strategic legal entity in Romania coordinating research and development (R&D) activity in the nuclear energy field, and maintains and develops the scientific and technologic support for the national nuclear energy programme. RATEN is subordinated to the Ministry of Energy and manages two subsidiaries: the Institute for Nuclear Research (RATEN ICN) and the Centre of Technology and Engineering for Nuclear Projects (RATEN CITON). The two organizations provide scientific, technical and engineering support (technical support organizations) for the development of the Romanian Nuclear Power Program, for the safe and competitive operation of Units 1 and 2 from Cernavoda, for the preservation of expertise regarding the commissioning of Units 3 and 4 of Cernavoda and other new nuclear power plants, for the promotion of advanced Generation IV reactors and the implementation of the ALFRED demonstrator in Romania, for the identification and preliminary assessment of new potential SMR compatible nuclear sites in Romania, for the safe storage of spent fuel and radioactive waste, for the development of R&D education and training programmes in the nuclear field, as well as for wider international cooperation.

7. The National Uranium Company (CNU), government owned and subordinated to the Ministry of Energy, is responsible for uranium mining and milling activities, including geological research and exploitation activities for uranium ores, ore processing and refining, and the commercialization of dioxide of uranium (UO₂) and octoxide of uranium (U₃O₈). Currently, CNU is undergoing reorganization. As per the Law No. 193/2018, the uranium dioxide produced by CNU is sold at a regulated tariff, and SNN procures it given the availability of the stock and the fulfilment of the quality criteria. As per the strategy for the diversification of the raw material supply sources necessary for the production of nuclear fuel, SNN has established a new branch, Uranium Powder Plant - Feldioara SRL, following the takeover of the Feldioara U₃O₈ processing line of CNU.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

*Latest available data.

Source: RDS-2

: data not available.

Cernavoda NPP Units 1 and 2, both in operation, ensure approximately 18% of the total energy generated in Romania. In 2020, both units at the Cernavoda NPP produced a gross energy of 11 466 405 MWh. Unit 1 registered a capacity factor of 88.01% and Unit 2 of 98.19%. Based on the service capacity factor of both units (91.2%), Romania has a high capacity factor of nuclear power plants worldwide, according to Nuclear Engineering International.

The Romanian energy strategy does not provide the completion of Cernavoda NPP Unit 5 as it does for Units 3 and 4; instead, it requires the capitalization of the works and assets to be used in relation to the operation of the other units. The feasibility study for the change of scope of Unit 5 was completed in 2011.

The construction of Unit 5 has been cancelled by a decision of the General Shareholder Assembly of the SNN. The existing structures of Unit 5 will be used for different activities connected to the operation of Units 1 and 2 and, in the future, of Units 3 and 4. Work is in progress for establishing a new seismically qualified location for the on-site emergency control centre and the fire department. The estimated date for the completion of this new centre is the end of 2024; the centre should be operational in 2025. This location will include important intervention equipment (mobile diesel generators, mobile diesel engine pumps, fire-fighter engines, radiological emergency vehicles, heavy equipment to unblock roads, etc.) and will be protected against all external hazards.

2.2.2.1. Regulatory framework

2.2.2.2. Lifetime extension of Unit 1

2.2.2.3. Improvement actions implemented based on lessons learned from the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi NPP

Currently, there are no decommissioned nuclear units in Romania.

2.3.1.1. Brief history and main decisions

2.3.1.2. Project structure

2.3.1.3. Policies for front end and back end nuclear fuel cycle (mining, converting, enriching, fabricating, reprocessing and managing spent fuel and waste, etc.)

2.3.1.4. Strategy for funding long term storage of spent fuel and final disposal, waste management and decommissioning

The main organizations involved in the implementation of the Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4 project are:

1. SNN The operator of Cernavoda NPP Units 1 and 2 and the owner of Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4. On 5 April 2021, the GMS of SNN approved the new strategy to continue the Project for Units 3 and 4 of Cernavoda NPP.

2. The Ministry of Energy Part of the negotiation process, responsible for decision making and approving the mandate of the State's representative in the GMS of SNN.

The current economic and electricity market context does not adequately provide supportive conditions to develop the large electricity infrastructure projects necessary for the electricity sector. To this end, Romania intends to develop a support mechanism such as contracts for difference to facilitate investments in electricity generation based on low carbon technologies (including nuclear technology) that require long-term investments and a level of intensive capitalization, which can contribute to the fulfilment of the objectives assumed by Romania through the Energy Strategy and PNIESC. Currently, at the level of the Ministry of Energy, a study is underway for the implementation of contracts for difference as support mechanism in Romania, in accordance with the European regulations on transparency, competition and state aid. The support mechanism will allow the predictability of investment recoverability and will be based on current market conditions at the time of its approval; an approval from the European Commission for the support mechanism will be necessary.

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

SNN organizes national opinion polls once every two years in order to measure public awareness and trust in relation to the use of nuclear power in Romania. The most recent opinion poll was conducted in 2020. The public in Romania generally has a favourable opinion of nuclear power projects (87% support the construction of Units 3 and 4 and 75% agree to the life extension of Cernavoda NPP Unit 1 compared to 67% and respectively 60% in 2018). The level of information of the population about nuclear power has also risen and the concerns about safety issues have decreased (risk of accident 13%, risk of radiation contamination 18%). The most important arguments perceived by the population in support of nuclear power are the reduced cost of nuclear power (40%) and energy independence (31%). For the second time in a row, most Romanians (53%) consider that the benefits of nuclear power outweigh the risks (17%) and also 63% of Romanians understand the fact that the production of nuclear power is safe in Romania, an increase from 56% in 2018. Also, 71% of Romanians are in favour of an Euro-Atlantic partnership for the completion of Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4. These positive results are due to the communication and public information efforts of SNN, as the main promoter of nuclear power. The opposition to nuclear projects in Romania is not significant, though some opposition has been posed by organizations such as Greenpeace and Terra Mileniul 3. Public opinion in Romania is generally favourable towards new nuclear projects (over 70% in favour of Units 3 and 4 and of the refurbishment of Unit 1). SNN promotes a collaborative approach to non-governmental organizations (NGOs), making information available and being open to discussion.

Regia Autonoma pentru Tehnologii Nucleare (Technologies for Nuclear Energy State owned Company) - RATEN

Established on 1 October 2013 due to the reorganization of the Romanian Authority for Nuclear Activities and separating the R&D and technological engineering activities, RATEN provides technical support for the nuclear power activities in Romania. The company is organized and acts as a strategic Romanian legal entity, coordinating R&D in the nuclear power field, maintaining and developing the technical competencies throughout the entire lifetime of the nuclear installations, being involved in the energy strategy development and achievement of the scientific and technical objectives of the national nuclear power programme.

RATEN's main activities include:

• Research, design and technological engineering activities;

• Technology development as national scientific and technical support concerning the safe operation of nuclear installations;

• Technology development for the new type of GEN IV reactors;

• Technology development for spent fuel and radioactive waste management;

• Radioisotope production for medicine and industry;

• Competence maintenance in the nuclear field, education and training of new specialists;

• Development of competencies and capabilities in the nuclear field to provide technical support to public institutions.

The RATEN Strategy is sustained by an Annual R&D Programme, which is supported by 18 programmes (www.raten.ro).

The main research priorities are:

• To maintain and develop scientific and technical support for the safe operation of CANDU Units of the Cernavoda NPP, refurbishment of Cernavoda NPP Unit 1, including their lifetime extension;

• To develop studies and research on the materials and nuclear fuels field, reactor physics, nuclear safety, equipment and instrumentation and control for nuclear power applications;

• To sustain the research activities for GEN IV reactors;

• To implement lead cooled fast reactors technology;

• To manage the characterization and treatment of radioactive waste, environmental and radiation protection, scientific research capacity and technology transfer, and develop and implement nuclear technologies or infrastructure for applications in industry, medicine and physical protection.

The Annual R&D Programme is funded by the Romanian Government, through the Ministry of Energy.

RATEN manages two subsidiaries:

• The Institute for Nuclear Research Pitesti, RATEN ICN (www.nuclear.ro);

• The Centre of Technology and Engineering for Nuclear Projects Bucuresti Magurele, RATEN CITON (www.citon.ro).

RATEN ICN Pitesti provides scientific and technical support for the safe and economic operation of NPPs, in accordance with the national and international agreements. The institute operates its own nuclear research infrastructure licensed and acknowledged by CNCAN:

• TRIGA research reactor (a pool type, dual-core reactor: SSR 14 MW and ACPR peak power 20 000 MW, completely converted from high enriched uranium to low enriched uranium);

• Post-irradiation examination laboratory (equipped with facilities and equipment that allow testing, handling and examination of nuclear fuel and structural materials from nuclear power plants, manufacturing sealed sources for industrial radiography);

• Radioactive waste treatment plant;

• Out of pile testing department;

• Nuclear materials and corrosion department;

• Testing labs for characterization of nuclear spent fuel and radioactive waste, radiological characterization of materials resulting from nuclear practices;

• Radiation protection, environment protection and civil protection laboratory;

• Surface analysis laboratory.

RATEN ICN Competencies:

• Nuclear safety assessments;

• Reactor physics and thermal hydraulics;

• Post-irradiation examination of materials and nuclear fuel, nuclear materials and corrosion tests;

• Manufacturing technologies for TRIGA and advanced nuclear fuels;

• Out of pile testing;

• Characterization, treatment and conditioning of radioactive waste;

• Safe disposal of radioactive waste;

• Electronics, instrumentation and control;

• Tests and qualifications for nuclear equipment and instrumentation;

• Radiation protection, environmental protection and emergency preparedness;

• Radioisotope production for medicine and industry;

• Education and training in the nuclear field.

RATEN CITON is typically structured for to be a design and engineering institute for nuclear projects. The elaboration of technical conceptual and detail design for structures and systems is developing in discipline sections/compartments that make up the two technical departments:

1. Projects and Programs Management Department (project management, technical and economical assessments, feasibility studies, planning and scheduling, nuclear safety analyses and licensing documents, environmental impact assessments);

2. Engineering Department (process systems, electric and instrumentation and control systems, health physics, civil structures, architecture and installations associated to buildings, mechanical components and systems related to reactor and fuel handling, sizing calculation).

RATEN CITON can provide the entire range of design and engineering services for nuclear projects:

• Research and development studies;

• Technical and economic feasibility studies;

• Conceptual technical design;

• Detail design (documentation and drawing);

• Licensing and environmental impact engineering support;

• Equipment manufacturing design;

• Engineering services for operating nuclear power plants and facilities:

• Operation and maintenance support;

• Start-up and commissioning support;

• Plant life extension, upgrading, power up rating, retrofitting and performance enhancement.

• Expert and consulting reports;

• Quality assurance and control services;

• Technical training services;

• Technical assistance and field engineering.

RATEN CITON is involved in the Ministry of Energy R&D Programs supporting the National Nuclear Program and Ministry of Education and Research's R&D Projects in the energy and environment protection field. In cooperation with other Romanian institutes, CITON has performed studies on safe disposal of spent fuel and HLW, as mentioned in the National Radioactive Waste Management Strategy. Also, RATEN CITON is actively developing knowledge of and implementing heavy water long-term management, SMRs deployment and detritiation technologies.

Romania joined the EURATOM R&D initiative devoted to the development of the Generation IV Lead Fast Reactor (LFR) technology and, through RATEN ICN, is involved in R&D and in the construction of the LFR European demonstrator (ALFRED). Following RATEN ICN's participation in the EU Framework Programme LEADER (https://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/147643_en.html), the Government of Romania issued Memorandum No. 20/2925 of February 2011, in which it determined that the country would host the ALFRED demonstrator reactor at the Mioveni nuclear platform. The demonstrator reactor is being developed primarily by the FALCON consortium (Ansaldo Nucleare and ENEA, Italy; RATEN ICN, Romania) and in cooperation (R&D) with several European organizations. The ALFRED Project is included in the Romania's relevant strategies (national research, development and innovation strategy, national research infrastructure roadmap, RATEN strategy). The implementation plan of the ALFRED project is developed by FALCON members, with the support of the national governments of Romania and Italy. It provides the necessary activities for research, design, siting and licensing during four phases (viability, preparation, construction and operation) with a target date for commissioning of 2030.

In 2020, the construction of the two experimental facilities (ATHENA and CHEMLAB addressing thermal-hydraulics processes and lead chemistry) of the ALFRED support infrastructure has been approved for funding. The project, currently under implementation, has to be finalized by December 2023.

During 2019-2020, RATEN ICN implemented the PRO ALFRED project devoted to the preparation of the ALFRED research infrastructure in Romania. The project funded under the framework of the National Plan for Research, Development and Innovation 2015-2020 (PNCDI III) provided technical documentation and feasibility studies for the additional research supporting facilities (ELF, HELENA2, HANDS ON, METLIN POT), elements for licensing process preparation, the research agenda and the human resource strategy associated to the ALFRED project.

In September 2007, Romania became an active member of the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) by signing its Declaration of Principles. The outstanding importance of this partnership resides in the strengthening of nuclear safety and nuclear risk mitigation through a balanced promotion of R&D and partnership in international policy. Romania is represented on the steering committee and in working groups.

Since 2010, Romania has been a member of the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), which took over some of the political and economic tasks of the former GNEP. Romania welcomed the IFNEC Steering Group meeting and associated working group meetings in 2014 and the IFNEC Executive Committee meeting in 2015.

Romania also joined the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT) in 2007. Signing the related Statement of Principles, Romania implemented all the legal instruments necessary for prevention/mitigation of acts of nuclear terrorism: prevention, early detection, combating and investigation. Romania participates in the meetings organized by the specific working groups and in the plenary meetings.

Romanian scientists are actively involved in international research projects such as International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO), Generation IV International Forum (GIF), EU research framework programme Horizon 2020 EURATOM (2014-2020), and the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC). Many are also associated with basic nuclear research projects developed within the international research networks or in cooperation with international research institutes (e.g. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research DUBNA; CERN, Geneva, FAIR, Darmstadt).

After its involvement in the IAEA INPRO collaborative projects (Synergistic Nuclear Energy Regional Group Interactions Evaluated for Sustainability (SYNERGIES), Proliferation Resistance and Safeguard ability Assessment Tools (PROSA) and Roadmaps for a Transition to Globally Sustainable Nuclear Energy Systems (ROADMAPS)), Romania became the 38th active Member State in INPRO during August 2012. Romania is committed to performing a Nuclear Energy System Assessment (NESA) using INPRO methodology, in the framework of IAEA resources, together with the IAEA's technical cooperation mechanism. RATEN ICN and ANDR contributed in INPRO collaborative projects (KIND, NEST, CENESO, FF-SMR, ASENES-SMR), in INPRO Dialogue Forums and on IAEA Learning Management System Platform Tools of Assessment and promote at national level the INPRO achievements by IAEA-TC training courses and dedicated workshops.

Romanian representatives in INPRO and in its collaborative projects (CENESO ROADMAPS, KIND, NESA Economics Support Tool (NEST)), also participated in the ASENES project dedicated to update of e-learning and distance learning tools to support INPRO training; new representatives from SNN, Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, RATEN and ANDR participated in RER 2017 (Regional Training on Nuclear Energy Systems Modelling and Sustainability Assessment).

SNN is an active member of international specialized organizations and entities, such as World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO) Atlanta Centre and COG (CANDU Owners Group), benefiting from a continuous exchange of experience in the field. It is also a member of the World Nuclear Association (WNA) and Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

RATEN is an active participant in regional, European and international technical cooperation programmes in the following areas: nuclear safety and security, waste management, emergency preparedness and response, specific regulatory issues, research reactors, isotopic technologies, radiation protection and nuclear techniques used in industry, medicine and education.

The following collaboration and cooperation are highlight:

1. European Commission

1. Participation in EURATOM Framework Programmes for Research and Training (H2020) with contributions in the following ongoing projects GEMMA, MEACTOS, CHANCE, TRANSAT, PIACE, EURAD, PARTICIA, ECC SMART, ORIENT NM, PREDIS, PASCAL. Another nine European projects, SASPAM SA, ANSELMUS, HARMONIZE, ENEN2PLUS, INNUMAT, FREDMANS, HARPERS, ECOSENS, TITANS will start in 2022.

2. In 2021, initial discussions for new project proposals occurred and some of these were accepted to be financed (e.g. TITANS).

3. RATEN and its subsidiaries are Members of European technological platforms (SNETP, IGD-TP), nuclear associations, alliances and cooperative groups (EERA, ECG-COMON), and the European Technical Safety Organization Network (ETSON).

4. Since 2021, RATEN ICN became member of ENEN.

2. IAEA Vienna Technical Cooperation:

1. Contracts and Research Agreement under IAEA-CRPs:

1. Neutronics Simulations of the CEFR Start-up Tests using Monte Carlo computer codes (SERPENT 2, MCNPX) Research Agreement 22755/RO;

2. Management of Waste Containing Long-lived Alpha Emitters: Characterization, Processing and Storage;

3. Characterisation of Spent CANDU Type Fuel in view of Long-Term Storage and Final Disposal (Research Agreement 24320/RO).

2. Regional Project Enhancing Capacity Building Activities in the European Nuclear and Radiation Safety Organizations for Safe Operation of Facilities (RER 0043), coordinated by RATEN ICN;

3. Regional project Assessing the Role of Low Carbon Energy Technologies for Climate Change Mitigation RER/2/17;

4. Further Support for Improving the Long-Term Safe Management of the Present Radioactive Waste and Spent Nuclear Fuel and for Fast Reactors - ROM9/038;

3. Practical Arrangements between IAEA and RATEN ICN on Cooperation in the Area of Scientific and Technical Support to Member States in Nuclear Safety and Security, renewed in 2019:

1. RATEN ICN was designated by the IAEA, in January 2020, as International Center based on Research Reactor (ICERR) in the fields of Education and Training and Joint Research and Development (R&D) Projects ;

2. Participation in the IAEA networks ALMERA, RANET, and URF;

3. Participation in PWR-HPWR Technical Working Group and as an observer in FR (Fast Reactors) TWG (expert's missions, consultative meetings, conferences and courses, fellowship trainings, IAEA courses and workshop organization);

4. RATEN-ICN provided technical assistance to nuclear specialists from economically developing countries operating CANDU NPPs, development of the nuclear technologies applied to radioactive waste management, decommissioning of nuclear facilities, or starting or enlarging of nuclear programmes.

4. Cooperation as partner in memorandums of understanding and cooperation agreements with: AECL and COG Canada, in which Romania is a CANDU type reactor owner;

5. Cooperation as partner in the agreement signed between CEA and RATEN in the field of nuclear science and technology for peaceful uses;

6. Cooperation with DOE and General Atomics;

7. Member of the International Consortium Fostering ALFRED Construction FALCON;

8. Representation of Romania in NEA/OECD Technical Committees, Working and Experts Groups by Romanian specialists.

CNCAN represents the national competent authority in exercising regulation, licensing and control of the nuclear field in Romania, for all the activities and installations under the scope of Law No. 111 of 1996 on the safe deployment, regulation, licensing and control of nuclear activities, republished, with subsequent modifications and completions.

CNCAN has all necessary legal powers to issue mandatory regulations and licences for nuclear facilities and activities and to perform evaluations, inspections and enforcement.

CNCAN is an independent governmental authority and a public institution of national interest, with legal personality, having its headquarters in Bucharest, chaired by a president with the rank of State Secretary, coordinated by the Prime Minister through the General Secretariat of the Government.

CNCAN has over 50 years of experience and it has an important role in ensuring requirements of nuclear safety and radiation protection in Romania.

CNCAN has the following main responsibilities (Article 35 of Law No. 111 of 1996):

1. Initiates projects for normative acts in its area of competence and issues regulations in the nuclear field, consulting the other authorities with attributions in this domain, as necessary, according to the law;

2. Reviews and consents to all the normative acts with implications for the nuclear field, prior to their entering into force;

3. Approves, in accordance with the law, the intervention plans for nuclear and radiological accident situations and participates in the intervention;

4. Collaborates with the central authority for environmental protection and controls the implementation of the activities of the environmental radioactivity monitoring network;

5. Requests the competent authorities in the field of national security to perform the necessary checks for the persons with responsibilities in the field of nuclear activities, in compliance with the specific regulations;

6. Initiates, with the consent of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, activities for cooperation with the IAEA and with other international organizations specialized in the nuclear field;

7. Cooperates with similar institutions/authorities from other countries;

8. Controls the implementation of the provisions of international treaties and agreements in force with regards to safeguards, physical protection, illicit trafficking, transport of nuclear and radioactive materials, radiation protection, quality assurance in the nuclear field, nuclear safety, safe management of spent fuel and radioactive waste, and intervention in case of a nuclear accident;

9. Establishes and coordinates the national system for evidence and control of nuclear materials, the national system for evidence and control of radiation sources and of nuclear and radiological installations, and the national registry of radiation doses received by occupationally exposed personnel;

10. Cooperates with other authorities that have, according to the law, attributions with regards to the safe operation of nuclear and radiological installations, correlated with the requirements for the protection of the environment and the population;

11. Ensures public information on matters that are under the competency of CNCAN;

12. Organizes public debates on matters that are under the competency of CNCAN;

13. Represents the national point of contact for nuclear safeguards, for the physical protection of nuclear and radiological materials and installations, for the prevention and combat of illicit trafficking of nuclear and radioactive materials, and for radiological emergencies;

14. Orders the recovery of orphan sources and coordinates the recovery activities;

15. Licenses the execution of nuclear constructions and exercises control over the quality of constructions for nuclear installations;

16. Carries out any other duties stipulated by the law, with regard to the regulation and control of nuclear activities.

CNCAN is completely separate and independent from the organizations involved in the promotion and/or production of nuclear energy, in accordance with the provisions of Article 8 in the Convention on Nuclear Safety. CNCAN has all the necessary legal powers to issue mandatory regulations, to issue licences for nuclear facilities and activities and to perform evaluations, inspections and enforcement. The regulations are updated whenever needed to adhere to recent national developments and requirements for nuclear safety and radiation protection in the European Union and the IAEA.

Law No. 111 of 1996 empowers CNCAN to issue regulations in the following areas:

1. Nuclear safety;

2. Radiation protection;

3. Quality assurance;

4. Non-proliferation of nuclear weapons;

5. Physical protection of nuclear facilities and materials;

6. Transport of radioactive and nuclear materials;

7. Management of radioactive waste and spent fuel;

8. Emergency preparedness and response;

9. Manufacture of products and supply of services for nuclear installations;

10. Any other regulations necessary for the licensing and control of nuclear facilities and activities (e.g. cyber security).

CNCAN is responsible for ensuring, through the regulations issued and the dispositions arising from the licensing and control (evaluation, inspection and enforcement) procedures that an adequate framework is in place for the deployment of activities under the scope of the law.

The current licensing practice is based on the provisions of Law No. 111 of 1996 and of the regulations issued by CNCAN.

The detailed regulatory requirements, as well as the assessment and inspection criteria used by CNCAN in the licensing process, are derived from a number of sources, such as:

1. Romanian regulations;

2. Limits and conditions specified in the different licences;

3. IAEA Safety Standards and Guides;

4. Other international standards, guides and recommendations, including regulatory documents developed in other jurisdictions;

5. Applicable standards and codes;

6. Licensing basis documentation produced by the licensee and approved or accepted by CNCAN (e.g. safety analysis reports, design manuals, reference documents, station instructions, operating manuals, technical basis documents, etc.).

The licences for nuclear installations are granted to legal persons, at their request, if they prove compliance with the provisions of the law and specific regulations issued by CNCAN. The licences are applied for and issued, respectively, either simultaneously or successively, separately for each kind of activity or for each nuclear or radiological installation operating independently, in the property of the applicant.

As stated in the law, the licences shall be issued for the following phases: design, siting, construction, commissioning, trial operation, operation, repair and/or maintenance (as major refurbishment), modification (as major upgrades), preservation and decommissioning.

In accordance with the provisions of the law, CNCAN is empowered to request from the licensees, or from the applicants for a licence, all the documentation needed for the regulatory decision making process on safety related matters. The documentation that needs to be submitted to CNCAN for review and approval is usually specified in the regulations, licence conditions, regulatory letters and inspection reports.

Additional support documentation is requested on a case by case basis and specified in regulatory letters, minutes of meetings between CNCAN staff and representatives of the licensees/applicants, etc. In addition to the review of the documentation, CNCAN verifies the claims made by the applicant through audits, inspections, licensing meetings and a system of witness points and hold points.

According to the law, the licensees and applicants have the obligation of facilitating CNCAN inspections and providing access to documentation and any other information requested by CNCAN. The general roles, authority and responsibilities of CNCAN inspectors are set out in the law. The key objective of the CNCAN inspection programme is to monitor compliance with the legal, regulatory and licensing requirements, and to take enforcement action in the event of non-compliance.