UNITED KINGDOM

(Updated 2022)

PREAMBLE AND SUMMARY

This report provides information on the status and development of nuclear power programmes in the United Kingdom (UK) including factors related to the effective planning, decision making and implementation of the nuclear power programme that together lead to safe and economical operation of nuclear power plants.

The Country Nuclear Power Profile (CNPP) summarises organisational and industrial aspects of nuclear power programmes and provides information about the relevant legislative, regulatory, and international framework in the United Kingdom.

The United Kingdom has 11 nuclear reactors in operation at 6 generating stations across England and Scotland. The UK Government’s long-term ambition is to increase plans for the deployment of civil nuclear power up to 24GW⁽¹⁾ by 2050, around 25% of UK’s projected 2050 electricity demand.

1. COUNTRY ENERGY OVERVIEW

1.1. ENERGY INFORMATION

1.1.1. Energy policy

The UK Government’s overall aim for its energy policy is to ensure secure, affordable, and clean energy supplies, consistent with its target for net zero emissions by 2050. UK Government has detailed how it intends to deliver these objectives through a series of publications including the ‘Government’s Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution,’ the ‘Energy White Paper: Powering our Net Zero Future,’ the ‘Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener,’ and the ‘British Energy Security Strategy.’

Climate Change

The UK remains committed to tackling climate change at both the international and domestic levels. In November 2016, the UK ratified the Paris Agreement, confirming its commitment to climate action across the world. Within the Agreement, each Party is required to prepare, communicate, and maintain successive Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which will reflect the highest possible ambition of the Party. Domestically, the UK Government remains committed to the UK’s Climate Change Act 2008.⁽²⁾

The Climate Change Act introduced the UK’s legally binding 2050 target, to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 80% relative to 1990 levels. During June 2019, the UK became the first major economy to legislate for a 2050 net zero GHG emissions target⁽³⁾. During December 2020, the UK communicated its NDC to reduce GHG emissions by at least 68% from 1990 levels by 2030.

The Climate Change Act also introduced carbon budgets which cap emissions over successive five-year periods and must be set 12 years in advance. The Sixth Carbon Budget (covering 2033–2037) was passed into law in April 2021⁽⁴⁾. This budget is set in line with the recommendation of the UK’s independent advisers, the Committee on Climate Change, at 965 MtCO2e (metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent), equivalent to a 78% reduction on 1990 levels. In 2020, net territorial greenhouse gas emissions in the UK were estimated to be 49.7% lower than 1990 and a further 9.5% below those in 2019.

Future generation mix

Reliable and affordable power is a foundation of a modern industrial economy. It is also critical in decarbonising the UK’s economy and achieving a net zero goal cost effectively. The next 30 years will see a decisive and permanent shift away from the use of unabated oil and gas as the engine of the UK’s economy. Low carbon power is expected to become the predominant form of energy in 2050. It will account for approximately a 50% or higher share of final energy consumption, up from 10% in 2019, as it displaces petrol in light vehicles and gas for heat in homes.

Since 1990 there has been a decline in the use of coal at power stations and an increase in the use of natural gas, which has a lower carbon content so results in fewer emissions. Coal use in generation reduced by 97% between 1990 and 2020, and now makes up only 3% of the fuel used for UK electricity generation compared to 65% in 1990. In 2020, the use of natural gas for electricity generation decreased 14% from 2019 and the use of coal by 21%, whereas renewable energy sources saw an 8% increase. In 2020, 60% of electricity generated in the UK was from low carbon sources with total greenhouse gas emissions at 50.2 MtCO2e, 75% lower than in 1990, accounting for 12% of all greenhouse gas emissions in the UK.⁽⁵⁾

The transformation of the power sector over the last 30 years provides a strong basis on which to move forward. The Net Zero Strategy sets out the UK Government’s approach to decarbonisation, reflecting the Sixth Carbon Budget. It represents a significant increase in the pace of decarbonisation by the power sector, coupled with increased demand due to the accelerated action in other sectors dependent on low carbon electricity. The UK Government has committed to all electricity coming from low carbon sources by 2035, subject to security of supply, resulting in a fully decarbonised power system within 15 years while meeting a 40–60% increase in demand.

To ensure system reliability, variable renewable energy sources need to be complemented by demonstrated technologies such as nuclear power, as well as those yet to be commercially demonstrated at scale (e.g. carbon capture, utilisation, and storage (CCUS)) and flexible technologies such as interconnectors, electricity storage, and demand-side response. These flexible technologies can help optimise the amount of total generation and network capacity needed to meet demand.

The UK Government is not targeting a particular technology mix but remains committed to nuclear power as an important part of the electricity generation mix, due to its capacity to provide a steady source of low carbon generation to complement intermittent renewable energy sources. The UK Government’s long-term ambition is to increase its plans for the deployment of civil nuclear power up to 24 GW by 2050, around 25% of the projected 2050 electricity demand. More details on the UK’s nuclear energy policy can be found later in this document.

Electricity market

A reliable power system is not only about having a balanced mix of generation technologies. It also needs to ensure that the networks can transport electricity to where it is required in a costeffective manner and enable crucial system services such as frequency response. Markets should determine the best solution for such a system.

The UK Government’s role is to ensure a market framework which encourages effective competition and delivers an affordable, secure, and reliable system that is consistent with net zero emissions. The UK Government intervenes to address any potential market failures and invests in innovation which helps commercialise new technologies and increases the options available to meet the challenge of delivering a secure, affordable, and clean electricity supply.

The UK Government has announced it will undertake a comprehensive Review of Electricity Market Arrangements in Great Britain, with high-level options for reform due to be released in summer 2022.

Support for low carbon technologies in the UK (including the Hinkley Point C (HPC) nuclear power project) is delivered through the Contracts for Difference (CfDs) regime, which offers long-term contracts providing a fixed price for an installation’s output. CfDs offer top-up payments to generators when the wholesale price of electricity is below a fixed level (the “strike price”).

The Nuclear Energy (Financing) Act 2022⁽⁶⁾ introduced the Regulated Asset Base (RAB) model as an option to fund future nuclear projects beyond HPC. A RAB model allows the company’s investors to share some of the project’s construction and operating risks with consumers, overseen by an economic regulator. Through this sharing of risk, RAB could reduce the cost of financing of new nuclear projects and help unlock private investment from the likes of pension funds and other institutional investors.

In response to less predictable wholesale prices, the UK also has a capacity market mechanism to secure the capacity required to meet peak demand. Competitive auctions are held ahead of delivery. It creates an additional source of revenue as companies sell their electricity in the wholesale market, balancing services in the balancing market, and their capacity in the capacity market.

The UK Government has also continued to promote energy efficiency through the tax system (including the UK Emissions Trading Scheme, and the Climate Change Levy (CCL)); financial incentives, such as support offered through the Industrial Energy Transformation Fund, the Climate Change Agreements Scheme, the Combined Heat and Power Quality Assurance programme and several capital grant schemes to improve the energy efficiency of the building stock; energy audits and disclosure schemes including the Energy Saving Opportunity Scheme (ESOS); streamlined energy and carbon reporting (SECR); and setting minimum standards for buildings in the private rented and owner occupier sectors.

1.1.2. Estimated available energy

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

	Fossil Fuels			Nuclear	Renewables
	Coal	Crude Oil	Natural Gas	Uranium	Hydro	Other Renewables
Total amount in specific units*	986(7)	411	221	…	…	…

*Solid, Liquid: Million tonnes; Gas: Billion m³; Uranium: Metric tonnes; Hydro, Renewable: TW.

Source: Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy⁽⁸⁾

1.1.3. Energy Consumption Statistics

TABLE 2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Final Energy consumption [PJ]	2000	2005	2010	2015	2020	Compound annual growth rate 2000–2020 (%)
Total	6 257	6 240	5 777	5 301	4 878	-1.24
Coal, Lignate and Peat	268	210	188	199	129	-3.59
Oil	2 615	2 640	2 316	2 259	1 889	-1.61
Natural gas	2 165	2 109	1 971	1 599	1 631	-1.41
Bioenergy and Waste	26	28	120	154	223	11.40
Electricity	1 184	1 253	1 183	1 091	1 005	-0.82
Heat	102	54	55	54	54	-3.13

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Total energy derived from primary and secondary generation sources. Figures do not reflect potential heat output that may result from electricity co-generation.

—: data not available.

Source(s): United Nations Statistical Division, OECD/IEA, and IAEA RDS-1

1.2. THE ELECTRICITY SYSTEM

1.2.1. Electricity system and decision-making process

With respect to Great Britain (GB), responsibility for energy policy rests with the United Kingdom Government and Parliament. However, energy projects may involve areas of competence that have been devolved to the respective administrations of Scotland and Wales. In Northern Ireland, energy matters and associated issues (such as energy consents and planning) are devolved to the Northern Ireland Executive. The main exception is nuclear energy, which is dealt with by the UK Government and Parliament.

Within Government, lead responsibility on energy matters outside Northern Ireland rests with the Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy (BEIS).

The regulation of the energy system within Great Britain is the responsibility of the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets, “Ofgem”, as the industry regulator. In Northern Ireland, this responsibility sits with The Northern Ireland Authority for Utility Regulation.

1.2.2. Structure of the electric power sector

Regulation of electricity markets in England, Wales and Scotland is the responsibility of the Gas and Electricity Markets Authority (GEMA) (the governing body of the energy regulator Ofgem), which is bound by statutory duties stated in the Electricity Act 1989. Members of the Authority are appointed by the Secretary of State. The Authority`s principal objective is to protect the interests of consumers.

The wholesale electricity market in England and Wales was reformed on 27 March 2001, when the Electricity Pool was replaced by New Electricity Trading Arrangements (NETA). This arrangement was extended to Scotland on 1 April 2005 with the introduction of the British Electricity Transmission and Trading Arrangements (BETTA).

The key features of the market that developed under BETTA are:

1. A forward market where generators can contract with suppliers and large customers for the physical delivery of electricity. Such contracts can be struck close to the time of delivery or a year or more ahead.

2. Two power exchanges (N2EX and APX Endex) to enable participants to refine their contract positions, through day-ahead auctions and continuous trading close to real time, in the light of current information (e.g. on the weather).

3. A balancing mechanism, operating from one hour ahead of real time up to real time, is managed by the National Grid Electricity System Operator (NGESO). To balance supply and demand, the NGESO needs to manage the grid system on a second-by-second basis, and the balancing mechanism is the facility which allows it to do this. However, most of the trading takes place in the forward and spot markets rather than in the balancing mechanism.

4. Associated OTC and exchange-based derivatives markets to enable market participants to manage commercial risks;

5. A settlement process to deal with the financial settlement of balancing mechanism trades and to deal with those whose generation or consumption of electricity is out of balance with their contracted position.

Alongside wholesale markets, the implementation of Electricity Market Reform (EMR) led to the introduction of the contracts for difference and capacity market mechanisms in 2014 (as described above).

In addition to wholesale market arrangements and EMR mechanisms, NGESO procures ancillary services through a range of short-to long-term products, to balance demand and supply and maintain system operability.

Transmission Networks

The onshore transmission network is owned by three licensed Transmission Owners (TOs): National Grid Electricity Transmission (NGET) in England and Wales, Scottish Hydro-Electric Transmission Ltd (SHETL) in Northern Scotland, and Scottish Power Transmission (SPT) in Southern Scotland.

National Grid Electricity System Operator (NGESO) is currently responsible for overseeing and managing (balancing) the flow of electricity across the whole of the transmission and distribution network. This includes the elements owned and operated by SPT and SHETL.

In Northern Ireland, all the electricity transmission and distribution lines are owned by Northern Ireland Electricity Networks Ltd (NIEN Ltd). The Transmission System Operator is System Operator Northern Ireland (SONI). SONI works in partnership with its counterpart in the Republic of Ireland, EirGrid, to act as the Single Electricity Market Operator (SEMO) for the all-island wholesale market for electricity, established in 2007.

There is a different regulatory framework for offshore electricity transmission in Great Britain. A key element to this framework is a competitive tender process run by Ofgem, to appoint Offshore Transmission Owners (OFTOs) to construct (where appropriate), own and operate the offshore transmission assets.

Distribution Networks

Electricity distribution networks carry electricity from the transmission systems and some generators that are connected to the distribution networks to industrial, commercial, and domestic users.

There are 14 licensed distribution network operators (DNOs), each responsible for a geographical distribution network area. The 14 DNOs are owned by six different private companies. There are also fifteen independent distribution network operators, who own and operate smaller networks, such as business parks and housing developments, embedded in the DNO networks.

Domestic and most commercial consumers buy their electricity from suppliers who pay the DNOs and TOs for maintaining and operating the networks.

Electricity Generation

Most electricity is generated at large power stations and increasingly renewable and low carbon such as wind farms connected to the national transmission network. However, electricity can also be generated in smaller-scale power stations which are connected to the regional distribution networks. The number and type of power station built is the decision of each individual company, based on market signals and government policy on issues such as the environment. There are many companies in the electricity generation sector, from large multinationals to small, family-owned businesses running a single site.

Suppliers buy electricity from generators in the wholesale market and sell it on to customers. Suppliers work in a competitive market, and customers can choose any supplier to provide them with electricity.

1.2.3. Main indicators

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

Electricity production (GWh)	2000	2005	2010	2015	2020	Compound annual growth rate 2000–2020 (%)
Total	377 069	398 356	382 069	339 570	311 064	-13.94
Coal, Lignate and Peat	122 300	136 336	108 730	76 963	6 069	-9.49
Oil	8 446	5 339	4 805	2 038	1 150	-1.46
Natural gas	148 077	152 640	175 654	99 876	110 294	12.32
Bioenergy and Waste	4 455	11 659	13 673	33 503	45 503	0.29
Hydro	7 780	7 852	6 741	9 037	8 251	-2.59
Nuclear	85 063	81 618	62 140	70 345	50 278	24.52
Wind	947	2 904	10 286	40 275	76 007	60.89
Solar	1	8	40	7 533	13 511	0.00
Geothermal	0	0	0	0	0	0.00
Tidal	0	0	2	2	11	0.00

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

—: data not available.

Source: United Nations Statistical Division, OECD/IEA, and IAEA RDS-1

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

Final Energy consumption [PJ]	2000	2005	2010	2015	2020	2021*
Nulcear/total electricity(%)	21.9	20	15.6	18.9	14.5	14.8

*Latest available data.

Source: RDS-1 and RDS-2

—: data not available.

2. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

The UK maintains the highest standards in nuclear safety, security, and safeguards in the nuclear sector. These arrangements include safeguards agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and nuclear cooperation agreements with key trading partners.

The UK has a robust and well-established domestic civil nuclear safety regime which is consistent with the IAEA’s Fundamental Safety Objective and Fundamental Safety Principles. The UK Government will continue to incorporate the relevant standards on nuclear safety agreed by the IAEA and other standard-setting bodies such as the Western European Nuclear Regulators Association (WENRA) and will remain part of the IAEA’s nuclear emergency notification and response system.

2.1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

2.1.1. Overview

The United Kingdom (UK) has had a wide range of nuclear power plants (NPPs) with a range of designs that span nearly 70 years. The first nuclear power plants, the Magnox reactors, began operating between 1956 and 1971. These were carbon dioxide gas-cooled graphite moderated reactors that used natural (or in some cases very slightly enriched) uranium fuel in a magnesium alloy cladding. The first nine NPPs had steel reactor pressure vessels while the last two (at Oldbury and Wylfa) had pre-stressed concrete reactor pressure vessels. These later designs had significant safety advantages over the steel pressure vessels since a sudden and unexpected failure of the main pressure vessel boundary was deemed to be virtually impossible. However, the use of natural uranium with magnesium alloy cladding limited the development of the Magnox technology. As a result, the second generation of gas-cooled reactors to be developed in the UK were the advanced gas cooled reactors (AGR). Seven NPPs were commissioned between 1976 and 1988, and each had two reactors. AGRs use enriched uranium oxide fuel in stainless steel cladding. This, together with the pre-stressed concrete pressure vessels, allowed gas outlet temperatures of over 600^oC and gas pressures of over 30 bar. The most recent NPP to be built in the UK is the pressurised water reactor (PWR) at Sizewell B. The reactor became operational in 1995 and uses enriched uranium oxide fuel clad in Zircalloy and pressurised water as the coolant.

On 14 December 2020, the Government published its Energy White Paper, which builds on the Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan for a Green Revolution published on 18 November 2020. In the Ten Point Plan, the Prime Minister stated the Government’s objective to advance nuclear energy as a low-carbon energy source. This includes large scale NPPs and developing the next generation of small and advanced reactors. The ten-point plan highlighted the key role of nuclear energy could have in delivering extensive decarbonisation of the UK’s electricity system alongside renewable energy sources and other technologies. The Net Zero Strategy, published in October 2021, announced a new Ł120 million Nuclear Enabling Fund to provide targeted support to address barriers to entry for future nuclear.

The new British Energy Security Strategy (April 2022) sets out the Government’s long-term ambition is to increase plans for the deployment of civil nuclear power up to 24 GW⁽⁹⁾ by 2050, around 25% of projected 2050 electricity demand. The Strategy explained that this is not a cap on the Government’s ambition, but a challenge to industry to come forward and compete for projects with the aim of coming online this decade. The Government will set up a new flagship ‘Great British Nuclear,’ a body tasked with developing a resilient pipeline of new build projects. To get to a 24 GW deployment pathway, the Government intends to take one project to Final Investment Decision (FID) this Parliament and two projects to FID in the next Parliament, including small modular reactors. As with any Government decision for nuclear energy deployment, this will be subject to value for money assessments, relevant approvals, and technology readiness/maturity. 

2.1.2. Current organizational structure

• Government authorities: Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy (BEIS); Scottish Government; Welsh Government; Northern Ireland Executive.

• Independent nuclear regulator: Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR)

• Environmental regulator: Environment Agency (EA; England), Natural Resources Wales (NRW; Wales), Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA; Scotland), Northern Ireland Environment Agency (Northern Ireland)

• Advisory body on radiation issues: UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA)

• Advisory body on radioactive waste issues: Committee of Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM)

• Research and Development: National Nuclear Laboratory (NNL)

• Nuclear Power Plants Operator: EDF Energy

• Nuclear new build: NNB Genco - EDF/China General Nuclear (CGN),

• Enrichment: Urenco Ltd (Capenhurst)

• Fuel fabrication: Springfields Fuels Ltd (Springfields)

• Decommissioning: Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) (Sellafield Ltd, Magnox Ltd, Dounreay Site Restoration Ltd)

• Reprocessing and packaging: Sellafield Ltd

• Radioactive waste management: Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (Nuclear Waste Services Ltd)

• Welsh SMR deployment: Cwmni Egino (Welsh Government-owned site development company focused on SMR deployment at Trawsfynydd)

• SMR Developers: Rolls-Royce SMR

• AMR Developers: Urenco (U-battery), Westinghouse LFR, Tokamak Energy

2.2. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS: OVERVIEW

2.2.1. Status and performance of nuclear power plants

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor Unit	Type	Net Capacity [MW(e)]	Status	Operator	Reactor Supplier	Construction date	First Criticality Date	First Grid Date	Commercial Date	Shutdown Date	UCF for 2021
BERKELEY-1	GCR	138	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1957-01-01	1961-08-01	1962-06-12	1962-06-12	1989-03-31	0
BERKELEY-2	GCR	138	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1957-01-01	1962-03-01	1962-06-24	1962-10-20	1988-10-26	0
BRADWELL-1	GCR	123	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1957-01-01	1961-08-01	1962-07-01	1962-07-01	2002-03-31	0
BRADWELL-2	GCR	123	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1957-01-01	1962-04-01	1962-07-06	1962-11-12	2002-03-30	0
CALDER HALL-1	GCR	49	Permanent Shutdown	SL	UKAEA	1953-08-01	1956-05-01	1956-08-27	1956-10-01	2003-03-31	0
CALDER HALL-2	GCR	49	Permanent Shutdown	SL	UKAEA	1953-08-01	1956-12-01	1957-02-01	1957-02-01	2003-03-31	0
CALDER HALL-3	GCR	49	Permanent Shutdown	SL	UKAEA	1955-08-01	1958-01-01	1958-03-01	1958-05-01	2003-03-31	0
CALDER HALL-4	GCR	49	Permanent Shutdown	SL	UKAEA	1955-08-01	1958-12-01	1959-04-01	1959-04-01	2003-03-31	0
CHAPELCROSS-1	GCR	48	Permanent Shutdown	ML	UKAEA	1955-10-01	1958-11-09	1959-02-01	1959-03-01	2004-06-29	0
CHAPELCROSS-2	GCR	48	Permanent Shutdown	ML	UKAEA	1955-10-01	1959-05-30	1959-07-01	1959-08-01	2004-06-29	0
CHAPELCROSS-3	GCR	48	Permanent Shutdown	ML	UKAEA	1955-10-01	1959-08-31	1959-11-01	1959-12-01	2004-06-29	0
CHAPELCROSS-4	GCR	48	Permanent Shutdown	ML	UKAEA	1955-10-01	1959-12-22	1960-01-01	1960-03-01	2004-06-29	0
DOUNREAY DFR	FBR	11	Permanent Shutdown	UKAEA	UKAEA	1955-03-01	1959-11-14	1962-10-01	1962-10-01	1977-03-01	0
DOUNREAY PFR	FBR	234	Permanent Shutdown	UKAEA	TNPG	1966-01-01	1974-03-01	1975-01-10	1976-07-01	1994-03-31	0
DUNGENESS A-1	GCR	225	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1960-07-01	1965-06-01	1965-09-21	1965-10-28	2006-12-31	0
DUNGENESS A-2	GCR	225	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1960-07-01	1965-09-01	1965-11-01	1965-12-30	2006-12-31	0
DUNGENESS B-1	GCR	545	Permanent Shutdown	EDF UK	APC	1965-10-01	1982-12-23	1983-04-03	1985-04-01	2021-06-07	0.6
DUNGENESS B-2	GCR	545	Permanent Shutdown	EDF UK	APC	1965-10-01	1985-12-04	1985-12-29	1989-04-01	2021-06-07	0.6
HARTLEPOOL A-1	GCR	590	Operational	EDF UK	NPC	1968-10-01	1983-06-24	1983-08-01	1989-04-01		56.4
HARTLEPOOL A-2	GCR	595	Operational	EDF UK	NPC	1968-10-01	1984-09-09	1984-10-31	1989-04-01		56.3
HEYSHAM A-1	GCR	485	Operational	EDF UK	NPC	1970-12-01	1983-04-06	1983-07-09	1989-04-01		65.2
HEYSHAM A-2	GCR	575	Operational	EDF UK	NPC	1970-12-01	1984-06-03	1984-10-11	1989-04-01		65.2
HEYSHAM B-1	GCR	620	Operational	EDF UK	NPC	1980-08-01	1988-06-23	1988-07-12	1989-04-01		38.9
HEYSHAM B-2	GCR	620	Operational	EDF UK	NPC	1980-08-01	1988-11-01	1988-11-11	1989-04-01		72.3
HINKLEY POINT A-1	GCR	235	Permanent Shutdown	ML	EE/B&W/T	1957-11-01	1964-05-01	1965-02-16	1965-03-30	2000-05-23	0
HINKLEY POINT A-2	GCR	235	Permanent Shutdown	ML	EE/B&W/T	1957-11-01	1964-10-01	1965-03-19	1965-05-05	2000-05-23	0
HINKLEY POINT B-1	GCR	485	Permanent Shutdown	EDF UK	TNPG	1967-09-01	1976-09-24	1976-10-30	1978-10-02	2022-08-01	57.6
HINKLEY POINT B-2	GCR	480	Permanent Shutdown	EDF UK	TNPG	1967-09-01	1976-02-01	1976-02-05	1976-09-27	2022-07-06	59.1
HINKLEY POINT C-1	PWR	1630	Under Construction	EDF-CGN	ORANO	2018-12-11					0
HINKLEY POINT C-2	PWR	1630	Under Construction	EDF-CGN	ORANO	2019-12-12					0
HUNTERSTON A-1	GCR	150	Permanent Shutdown	ML	GEC	1957-10-01	1963-08-01	1964-02-05	1964-02-05	1990-03-30	0
HUNTERSTON A-2	GCR	150	Permanent Shutdown	ML	GEC	1957-10-01	1964-03-01	1964-06-01	1964-07-01	1989-12-31	0
HUNTERSTON B-1	GCR	490	Permanent Shutdown	EDF UK	TNPG	1967-11-01	1976-01-31	1976-02-06	1976-02-07	2021-11-26	83.1
HUNTERSTON B-2	GCR	495	Permanent Shutdown	EDF UK	TNPG	1967-11-01	1977-03-27	1977-03-31	1977-04-01	2022-01-07	76
OLDBURY A-1	GCR	217	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1962-05-01	1967-08-01	1967-11-07	1967-12-31	2012-02-29	0
OLDBURY A-2	GCR	217	Permanent Shutdown	ML	TNPG	1962-05-01	1967-12-01	1968-04-06	1968-09-30	2011-06-30	0
SIZEWELL A-1	GCR	210	Permanent Shutdown	ML	EE/B&W/T	1961-04-01	1965-06-01	1966-01-21	1966-03-25	2006-12-31	0
SIZEWELL A-2	GCR	210	Permanent Shutdown	ML	EE/B&W/T	1961-04-01	1965-12-01	1966-04-09	1966-09-15	2006-12-31	0
SIZEWELL B	PWR	1198	Operational	EDF UK	PPC	1988-07-18	1995-01-31	1995-02-14	1995-09-22		64.2
TORNESS-1	GCR	595	Operational	EDF UK	NNC	1980-08-01	1988-03-25	1988-05-25	1988-05-25		59.3
TORNESS-2	GCR	605	Operational	EDF UK	NNC	1980-08-01	1988-12-23	1989-02-03	1989-02-03		68.2
TRAWSFYNYDD-1	GCR	195	Permanent Shutdown	ML	APC	1959-07-01	1964-09-01	1965-01-14	1965-03-24	1991-02-06	0
TRAWSFYNYDD-2	GCR	195	Permanent Shutdown	ML	APC	1959-07-01	1964-12-01	1965-02-02	1965-03-24	1991-02-04	0
WINDSCALE AGR	GCR	24	Permanent Shutdown	UKAEA	UKAEA	1958-11-01	1962-08-09	1963-02-01	1963-03-01	1981-04-03	0
WINFRITH SGHWR	SGHWR	92	Permanent Shutdown	UKAEA	ICL/FE	1963-05-01	1967-09-01	1967-12-01	1968-01-01	1990-09-11	0
WYLFA-1	GCR	490	Permanent Shutdown	ML	EE/B&W/T	1963-09-01	1969-11-01	1971-01-24	1971-11-01	2015-12-30	0
WYLFA-2	GCR	490	Permanent Shutdown	ML	EE/B&W/T	1963-09-01	1970-09-01	1971-07-21	1972-01-03	2012-04-25	0

Source: RDS-2

Nuclear sites are licensed by the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR), the independent regulator responsible for overseeing duty holder compliance and their legal obligations to ensure safe operation. All nuclear site licenced installations, and their safety submissions to ONR, are subject to ongoing inspection and assessment by ONR. This is to ensure compliance with all the licence conditions⁽¹⁰⁾ attached to a nuclear site licence (and other applicable legislation) is always maintained. ONR’s enforcement approach is described in its Enforcement Policy Statement⁽¹¹⁾ which provides a range of tools for ONR to deploy in the exercise of its regulatory oversight. In addition to inspection and assessment, licence conditions require nuclear site licensees to conduct periodic safety reviews (PSR). Such PSRs are carried out every 10 years. They ensure that all licensees arrangements are reviewed, and reassessed as necessary, to demonstrate compliance with their licences, and that their conditions reflect current internationally recognised safety standards consistent with the internationally recognised principle of continuous improvement.⁽¹²⁾

All the 11 Magnox NPPs have ceased operating and are in varied states of defueling and decommissioning. Wylfa, the last of the operating Magnox NPPs, was shut down during December 2015, with the last of the fuel removed in 2019. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), which was established in 2005 under the Energy Act 2004, is responsible for a UK wide strategic focus on decommissioning and cleaning up of the nuclear legacy sites including the Magnox NPPs. In 2016, the NDA published its strategy for tackling the nuclear legacy decommissioning and clean-up programme, safely, securely, cost effectively, and in ways that protect people and the environment.⁽¹³⁾

2.2.2. Plant upgrading, plant life management and licence renewals

There are currently 11 nuclear reactors operating/generating at six stations/five sites across England and Scotland. Although the UK fleet of generating reactors has been reduced and is ageing, it continues to play a valuable part in the UK’s energy mix. The ONR will continue with its current approach of assessing submissions from licensees for further periods of operation of generating reactors, until such time as those submissions is judged by ONR to be inadequate for the licensee to meet its legal obligations to ensure safety.

TABLE 5B: NUCLEAR SITE OPERATION STATUS

Reactor name	Shutdown date	Shutdown reason	Decom. strategy	Current decom. phase	Current fuel management phase	Decom. licensee	Licence terminated
BERKELEY-1	Mar-89	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	Deferred dismantling, placing all radiological areas into safe enclosure	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
BERKELEY-2	Oct-88	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	Deferred dismantling, placing all radiological areas into safe enclosure	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
BRADWELL-1	02-Mar	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	Deferred dismantling, placing all radiological areas into safe enclosure	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
BRADWELL-2	02-Mar	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	Deferred dismantling, placing all radiological areas into safe enclosure	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
CALDER HALL-1	03-Mar	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	SL	-
CALDER HALL-2	03-Mar	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	SL	-
CALDER HALL-3	03-Mar	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	SL	-
CALDER HALL-4	03-Mar	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	SL	-
CHAPELCROSS-1	04-Jun	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
CHAPELCROSS-2	04-Jun	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
CHAPELCROSS-3	04-Jun	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
CHAPELCROSS-4	04-Jun	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
DOUNREAY DFR	Mar-77	R&D objective completed	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Safe encl	-	DSR	-
DOUNREAY PFR	Mar-94	R&D objective completed	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
DUNGENESS A-1	06-Dec	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
DUNGENESS A-2	06-Dec	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
HINKLEY POINT A-1	May-00	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
HINKLEY POINT A-2	May-00	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
HUNTERSTON A-1	Mar-90	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
HUNTERSTON A-2	Dec-89	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
SIZEWELL A-1	06-Dec	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	Deferred dismantling, placing all radiological areas into safe enclosure	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
SIZEWELL A-2	06-Dec	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	Deferred dismantling, placing all radiological areas into safe enclosure	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox S	-
TRAWSFYNYDD-1	Feb-91	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
TRAWSFYNYDD-2	Feb-91	Economic case no longer viable, After major component failure	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Passive Safe encl	-	Magnox N	-
WINDSCALE AGR	Apr-81	R&D objective completed	A combination of immediate & deferred dismantling	Active Safe encl	-	SL	-
WINFRITH SGHWR	Sep-90	R&D objective completed	Immediate dismantling & removal of all radioactive material	-	-	UKAEA	2019

*Heysham 1 and Heysham 2 are 2 stations/4 reactors on one licensed site

Source: Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy

2.2.3. Permanent shutdown and decommissioning process

Responsibility for decommissioning of the Magnox nuclear power reactors in the UK lies with the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), which will also decommission the AGRs once the defuelling stage has been undertaken by EDFE (as HMG agreed with EDFE during June 2021). Full details of the UK’s decommissioning strategy and the current situation and plans for individual shut-down reactors can be found in the NDA’s strategy (effective from March 2021) and Business Plan 2022–2025.

During March 2021, as part of their new strategy⁽¹⁴⁾ and Business Plan 2022-25⁽¹⁵⁾, the NDA have endorsed a new site-specific approach to Magnox reactor decommissioning, which will involve a mix of decommissioning strategies. The previous strategy was developed over 30 years ago and involved deferring reactor decommissioning at all sites for approximately 85 years from reactor shutdown. Although this strategy did have some benefits, it is not appropriate for all reactors in the Magnox fleet because of their unique design, location, age, and physical condition.

For some sites, the new site-specific approach will result in their being decommissioned sooner while for others a deferral strategy with varying deferral periods will be the chosen approach. Magnox Ltd is preparing a report for implementing this strategic change which will also be informed by the views of local and national stakeholders and will be published in due course.

The UK proposes to adopt the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Nuclear Energy Agency’s (OECD/NEA) “Decision and Recommendation of The Steering Committee Concerning the Application of The Paris Convention to Nuclear Installations in The Process of Being Decommissioned,” October 2014, when the Parliamentary timetable allows. This will allow nuclear installations in the process of being decommissioned to be excluded from the nuclear third-party liability regime. The UK also proposes to amend the arrangements for ending or varying a nuclear licence. The UK anticipates that the net effect of these amendments will be to allow nuclear sites to be delicensed (and potentially re-used) earlier than at present, although the sites will remain subject to environmental regulation and health and safety regulation.

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS⁽¹⁶⁾

Reactor Unit	Shutdown Reason	Decommission Strategy(17)	Current decommissioning phase	Current fuel management phase	Decommissioning License	License Terminated Year
BERKELEY 1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	Magnox Ltd (ML	N/A
BERKELEY 2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
BRADWELL 1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
BRADWELL 2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
CALDER HALL 1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	Sellafield Ltd (SL)	N/A
CALDER HALL 2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueling	SL	N/A
CALDER HALL 3	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueling	SL	N/A
CALDER HALL 4	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	SL	N/A
CHAPLECROSS 1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
CHAPLECROSS 2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
CHAPLECROSS 3	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
CHAPLECROSS 4	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
DUNGENESS A1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
DUNGENESS A2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
HINKLEY POINT A1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
HINKLEY POINT A2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
HUNTERSTON A1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
HUNTERSTON A2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
OLDBURY A1	End of lifespan		Retrieval, processing, storage, and dispatch of waste	Defueled	ML	N/A
OLDBURY A2	End of lifespan		Retrieval, processing, storage, and dispatch of waste	Defueled	ML	N/A
SIZEWELL A1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
SIZEWELL A2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
TRAWSFYNYDD 1	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
TRAWSFYNYDD 2	End of lifespan		Preparation for Care and Maintenance	Defueled	ML	N/A
WYLFA 1	End of lifespan		Reactor defueling	Defueling	ML	N/A
WYLFA 2	End of lifespan		Reactor defueling	Defueling	ML	N/A

Source: Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy

2.3. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER SECTOR

2.3.1. Nuclear power development strategy

The UK Government’s long-term ambition is to increase plans for the deployment of civil nuclear power up to 24 GW⁽¹⁸⁾ by 2050, around 25% of the projected 2050 electricity demand. To get to 24GW deployment pathway, the Government intends to take one project to Final Investment Decision (FID) this Parliament and two projects to FID in the next Parliament, including small modular reactors. As with any Government decision, this will be subject to value for money, relevant approvals, and technology readiness/maturity. These ambitions could result in the nuclear sector gaining up to eight more reactors across the next series of projects. Projects include:

• EDF and CGN (as NNB Generation Company (NNBG)) are currently constructing two EPRs (originally known as European Pressurised Water Reactors) at Hinkley Point C (3.2 GW)

• EDF and CGN have plans for an additional two EPRs at Sizewell C (3.2 GW).

• The Government expects to initiate a selection process in 2023, with the intention that negotiations will occur for the most credible projects to enable a potential Government award of support as soon as possible, including (but not limited to) Wylfa Newydd.

Advanced nuclear technologies could play a significant role in the UK’s transition to a low carbon economy. The Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution (November 2020), the Energy White Paper (December 2020) and the Net Zero Strategy (October 2021) describe the UK Government’s commitment to large, small, and advanced nuclear projects. The Ten Point Plan announced the Advanced Nuclear Fund of up to Ł385 million to invest in the next generation of nuclear technologies. This includes up to Ł210 million for Rolls-Royce SMR to further develop the design for one of the world’s first small modular reactor designs, potentially capable of deployment in the UK in the early 2030s. Funding for this project will be matched by private investment. Ł18 million was previously awarded to the Rolls-Royce-led consortium in November 2019 for R&D into their SMR design.

The Government will publish a roadmap for new nuclear deployment, including large-scale and advanced nuclear technologies, this year.

The UK is currently developing its Advanced Modular Reactor (AMR) Research, Development & Demonstration (RD&D) programme which aims to enable an AMR demonstration by the early 2030s, at the latest.

During autumn 2021, UK Government published the UK Fusion Strategy⁽¹⁹⁾, stating the UK’s strategic aims and approaches for delivering fusion energy. The fusion strategy sets out how the UK government will leverage scientific, commercial, and international leadership to enable delivery of fusion energy.

Generic Design Assessment (GDA) is one of the facilitative actions described in the Nuclear White Paper 2008 and is undertaken by the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR) and the Environment Agency (and where relevant, Natural Resources Wales). GDA is a voluntary process that allows regulators to consider the generic safety, security, and environmental aspects of designs for NPPs prior to applications for site-specific licence and planning consents.

For a new nuclear build, Section 45 of the Energy Act 2008⁽²⁰⁾ requires prospective nuclear operators to submit a Funded Decommissioning Programme (FDP) for approval by the Secretary of State for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy. The UK Government published FDP statutory guidance in December 2011⁽²¹⁾ to assist operators to develop their programmes. This will ensure that operators of new nuclear power stations make secure financial provisions for their waste and decommissioning liabilities from the outset.

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor Unit/Project Name	Owner/developer	Type	Capacity (GW)	Construction Start Year	Expected Commercial Year
HINKLEY POINT C	EDF/CGN	EPR	3.2 GW	2016	2025
SIZEWELL C	EDF/CGN	EPR	3.2 GW	TBC	TBC

2.3.2. Project management

Project management will be the responsibility of the commercial developers involved in the new nuclear programme in the UK.

2.3.3. Project funding

The Government engages with new build developers on a range of issues relevant to the delivery of future projects, including financing. Developers engage with potential investors of their projects as well as discussing financing issues with the Government. The details of these discussions are commercially sensitive.

During March 2022, the Nuclear Energy (Financing) Act received Royal Assent, enabling use of the regulated asset base (RAB) model for new nuclear projects. The model enables investors to share some of the project’s construction and operating risks with consumers. The effect of using RAB could be to lower the cost of capital for a new large-scale nuclear project compared to the contract for difference model and to facilitate private investment from pension funds, insurers, and other investors. The Act is nuclear technology agnostic, meaning that it could allow use of the RAB model on current generation and potential advanced nuclear technologies, subject to negotiations between project developers and the Government.

In terms of potential new projects, the 2020 Energy White Paper describes an objective to reach Final Investment Decision (FID) on at least one large-scale nuclear project by the end of the current Parliament. Negotiations on the Sizewell C project were announced simultaneously with the publication of the White Paper and began in January 2021. No decisions have been made on the project, but negotiations to date have been constructive.

In the 2021 Spending Review⁽²²⁾, up to Ł1.7 billion of funding was made available to support the objective of reaching FID on at least one project this Parliament. This is intended as development stage funding to support the maturation of potential projects and could also be used for Government investment in a project at the point of a transaction, which could help to mobilise other private sector capital into a project.

During January 2022, the Government entered a combined option agreement with EDF on the Sizewell C project. This entailed the Government making a payment of Ł100 million, which EDF was required to invest in the Sizewell C project to continue its development and to prepare it for potential private investment. In return, the Government received certain rights over the land of the Sizewell C site and EDF’s shares in the Sizewell C company, providing opportunities to continue to develop a nuclear or alternative low carbon energy infrastructure on the site should the Sizewell C project not be successful.

As per the 2021 Spending Review, the UK is looking to invest:

• Ł1 billion Net Zero Innovation Portfolio which includes advanced nuclear technologies.

• Up to Ł1.7 billion of direct government funding to enable a large-scale nuclear plant to achieve a final investment decision this Parliament.

• Ł385 million Advanced Nuclear Fund developing the next generation of small and advanced modular reactor technologies including Ł210 million for SMR development.

• Ł120 million for a new Future Nuclear Enabling Fund to address barriers to entry for nuclear projects.

• Ł155 million for Critical Nuclear Infrastructure, including:

• The Ł75 million Nuclear Fuel Fund to preserve and develop the UK’s fuel production capability, alongside sector investment, to power the reactors of today and advance nuclear reactors in the future.

• Up to Ł80 million investment in the National Nuclear Laboratory Facilities.

2.3.4. Electric grid development

Significant investment is taking place in the GB electricity network infrastructure in this decade and beyond to ensure the timely connection of low carbon generation plants, including the accommodation of new nuclear generation on the transmission network.

The onshore transmission network in GB is built, owned, and operated by three transmission owners, which, as regulated monopolies, require approval from the independent regulator, Ofgem, to fund their activities, such as building new networks and maintaining assets. This is primarily agreed through price controls, whereby the network companies submit business plans to Ofgem for approval, presenting the outcomes they intend to deliver and the costs for doing so.

For the latest transmission price control (RIIO-T2) that runs from 2021 to 2026, Ofgem has allocated a Ł30 billion package of investment for the transmission owners to expand, replace and maintain the GB transmission network. This will help ensure that the network can accommodate new generation and demand in a cost effective and timely manner.

National Grid is currently developing a major transmission project to connect proposed new nuclear generation, the Hinkley Point C Connection between Bridgwater and Avonmouth in southwest England for Hinkley Point C, for which development consent was granted during January 2016.

2.3.5. Sites

The existing National Policy Statement (NPS) for nuclear power generation, EN6, was designated in 2011 under the Planning Act 2008. EN6 states the planning and consents regime for new nuclear power stations and lists eight sites deemed potentially suitable for deployment by the end of 2025 based on Strategic Siting Assessments (SSA) of nominated sites. EN6, taken together with the Overarching NPS for Energy (EN1), provides the primary basis for decisions taken by the Examining Authority and Secretary of State on applications that they receive for nuclear power stations in England and Wales.

The Government has since committed to completing a review of the suite of energy NPSs to reflect current energy policy following the publication of the Ten Point Plan and Energy White Paper (2020).

The revised draft EN1 reflects the development in the Government’s position regarding nuclear energy, setting the need for new nuclear energy sources that could be met by traditional, advanced, and fusion technologies. It states the Government’s intention to develop a new nuclear NPS for new nuclear power stations deployable after 2025, which will encompass large-scale and advanced nuclear technologies. This will be developed to reflect the changing policy and technology landscape for nuclear energy and support the transition to net zero and will be subject to the usual process of consultation, in due course. The British Energy Security Strategy, published in April 2022, includes a commitment to consult on a strategy for siting new nuclear power stations, which will inform the new NPS.

2.3.6. Public awareness

In 2020, BEIS, with support from UK Research and Innovation’s Sciencewise programme, delivered a public dialogue exploring citizens’ attitudes towards advanced nuclear technologies (ANT). The aim of the public dialogue was to explore perceptions on the future siting and deployment of ANTs including the role for ANT in achieving net zero, as well as explore participants’ views on potential ‘beyond-grid uses,’ for example hydrogen production or heat for industrial processes.

The dialogue found that the participants’ key concerns were about nuclear waste storage and management, health and safety, environmental impacts, and the transparency and fairness of decision-making; while their hopes centred around the reduced carbon emissions, job opportunities, and the reliability of nuclear energy.

It also demonstrated that the number of participants willing to consider the deployment of advanced nuclear technologies to support reaching net zero by 2050 increased through the process as they learnt more about nuclear power.

BEIS officials will use the findings and experience from organising the dialogue, and other projects, to develop a plan for next steps beyond publishing the results from this dialogue and to explore future communication and engagement surrounding advance nuclear technologies.

BEIS’s Winter 2021 Public Attitudes Tracker shows that 46% of respondents had some awareness of SMR and 54% had never heard of them⁽²³⁾.

2.4. ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Hinkley Point C is the only nuclear power plant under construction in the UK. NNB Generation Company are the owners (a partnership of EDF Energy UK Ltd and CGN), Framatome are the reactor and main NSSS component suppliers, and General Electric are the conventional island suppliers.

2.5. ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN OPERATION OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

There are currently 11 nuclear reactors operating at six generating stations/five sites across England and Scotland operated by EDF Energy.

2.6. ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN DECOMMISSIONING OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The NDA, established in 2005, is responsible for ensuring that the UK’s nuclear legacy sites are decommissioned and cleaned up safely, securely, cost effectively and in ways that protect people and the environment. The NDA’s estate covers 17 sites, across England, Wales, and Scotland. It owns the nuclear legacy sites and associated civil nuclear liabilities and assets of the public sector including all the former sites and reactors of British Nuclear Fuels Ltd (BNFL) and the UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA).

Since 2018, the NDA has sought to progressively improve the foundations for mission delivery through the evolution of its operating model. This has included a radical shift in the way that the NDA engages the private sector, as well as a simplification of its corporate infrastructure, to create an NDA group made up nearly exclusively of owned subsidiaries.

Sellafield Ltd became an owned subsidiary of the NDA in 2016 with Magnox Ltd following in 2019. Dounreay Ltd was the most recent in 2021, becoming under the new model along with the Low-Level Waste Repository Ltd (LLWR).

During January 2022, the NDA brought together LLWR and Radioactive Waste Management Ltd to create a single waste division called Nuclear Waste Services Ltd.

The NDA also performs certain advisory functions for the Secretary of State, including reviewing decommissioning plans for the UK’s nuclear new build programme and providing oversight of the decommissioning plans of the EDF Energy fleet.

2.7. FUEL CYCLE INCLUDING WASTE MANAGEMENT

The UK has domestic uranium enrichment, fuel fabrication and deconversion capabilities along with transport, decommissioning, and waste management services. The UK has no uranium mining or milling capability and the primary conversion facility is not currently operational.

Uranium enrichment in the UK is carried out at Capenhurst by URENCO UK (UUK) Limited. Springfields Fuels Limited, managed by Westinghouse Electric UK Ltd, operates the Springfields site, providing enriched UF₆ to UO₂ conversion and fuel fabrication services for the UK AGR fleet. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority and its subsidiaries conduct transport, decommissioning, and waste management activities (see previous section).

The UK Government’s policy is that the decision of whether or when to reprocess spent fuel is a matter for the owner of the spent fuel.

The Magnox reprocessing plant at Sellafield site is the UK’s last reprocessing facility. Over its lifetime it has reprocessed approximately 55,000tU of spent Magnox fuel. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority’s strategy is to reprocess as much of the spent Magnox fuel as is practicable, in line with the Magnox Operating Programme, and to complete reprocessing as soon as is practicable. Reprocessing of Magnox spent fuel is expected to be completed by the end of 2022. After a period of pond storage, any remaining spent fuel is expected to be transferred into dry storage pending a future decision on whether to condition and dispose of it in a geological disposal facility (GDF).

In 2012, Nuclear Decommissioning Authority confirmed its strategy to reprocess the contracted amount of spent fuel in Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP) at Sellafield as the most viable and cost-effective option. These contracts for reprocessing were with EDF for advanced gas cooled reactor (AGR) spent fuel and with overseas customers for light water reactor (LWR) fuel. During November 2018, this objective was achieved and reprocessing operations at THORP ceased. The strategy is now to consolidate all remaining spent AGR fuel from the EDF AGR stations in a single pond in the THORP facility at the Sellafield site, and store in the interim the fuels pending a future decision on whether to classify the fuel as waste for disposal in a GDF.

Spent fuel from the Sizewell B Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) is stored on the Sizewell site in a storage pond and a dry fuel store which is designed to accommodate all the spent fuel arising from site operations. The expectation is that the remaining and future PWR spent fuel will be stored pending a decision on its future management which could include disposal to a GDF.

There are currently no proposals for reprocessing of the spent fuel arising from any new nuclear power stations that are being built or might be built in England or Wales. UK Government guidance for Funded Decommissioning Programmes for new nuclear power stations assumes that there will be no reprocessing of uranium fuel and spent fuel will be disposed of in a GDF. Any proposals for future reprocessing of spent fuel would need to be in line with regulatory and policy requirements for the management of all nuclear materials and radioactive waste streams.

The UK manages large quantities of civil uranium arising from nuclear fuel cycle activities such as enrichment, fuel fabrication and reprocessing. The nuclear materials which the UK holds is diverse in nature and properties. The strategy is to store the nuclear materials safely and securely in line with regulatory requirements while lifecycle solutions are developed.

A proportion of the nuclear materials inventory has the potential to be reused in nuclear fuel for generating electricity while some is likely to be unsuitable for reuse and will need to be treated as waste for disposal.

The Capenhurst site is home to both historic and operating uranium enrichment plants and associated facilities. Most of the site is owned by Urenco UK Limited (UUK), a subsidiary of Urenco Limited, with the remainder owned by the NDA and leased to UUK. UUK is the Site Licence holder responsible for the site and operates ongoing enrichment activities. The site also houses the NDA’s largest uranium store and has historic liabilities in the form of redundant facilities.

The Springfields site is owned by the NDA and leased to Springfields Fuels Limited (SFL), a subsidiary of Westinghouse Electric Company (WEC). SFL operates the site and manufactures a range of fuel products for both UK and international customers. The site also has historic liabilities in the form of uranium-bearing residues and redundant facilities.

Radioactive waste management

In the UK, there is an increasing focus and emphasis on sustainable approaches and solutions to radioactive waste management, including operational waste and waste arising from nuclear and non-nuclear decommissioning and clean-up activities. Consequently, there continues to be an emphasis in the UK on the effective application of the waste hierarchy, where it is appropriate or practicable to do so, to avoid or minimise the production of radioactive waste, including secondary radioactive waste produced during treatment activities or through decommissioning and clean-up activities.

The radioactive waste management landscape in the UK is also changing as the decommissioning and clean-up of the nuclear estate and to some extent the non-nuclear sectors, progresses. The ongoing decommissioning and clean-up of nuclear sites will result in higher volumes of less hazardous radioactive waste (intermediate level waste (ILW) containing shorter-lived isotopes and large volumes of low-level waste (LLW)), rather than the more hazardous ILW and high-level waste (HLW) that is created primarily during the operation of nuclear facilities.

The 2007 Policy for the long-term management of solid low level radioactive waste in the United Kingdom⁽²⁴⁾ (and its three supporting strategies) facilitates better management of the significant volumes of solid LLW arising from the large-scale decommissioning and environmental remediation work across the nuclear estate as well as other sources of solid LLW. The policy requires the effective application of the waste hierarchy with a preference for managing LLW at higher levels of the waste hierarchy. Where this preference cannot be met and disposal is necessary, the policy requires this to be optimised to minimise the overall impact of LLW management on people and the environment. The policy also introduced the requirement for a risk-informed approach to be taken to determine the most appropriate disposal options for LLW, which enabled waste owners and producers to develop optimal solutions on a case-by-case basis.

The Low-Level Waste Repository Ltd (LLWR Ltd), now part of Nuclear Waste Services⁽²⁵⁾, is responsible for managing the low-level waste disposal facility in Cumbria. The facility, which has been operating since 1959, has safely disposed of the UK’s low-level waste for over 50 years. It has led the implementation of the 2007 policy and the delivery of the nuclear industry solid LLW strategy on behalf of the NDA and the UK Government and devolved administrations through the National LLW Programme. LLWR Ltd has also provided a series of commercial frameworks allowing waste producers to access a range of treatment and alternative disposal routes provided by commercial operators. The National LLW Programme has driven a change in thinking, behaviours and culture in waste owners and producers, which delivered significant improvements in LLW management. This includes changing from packaging LLW for disposal, to the development of waste management plans and arrangements which take account of all current and anticipated future arisings of LLW and their radiological and non-radiological properties. Over the last 10 years this approach, together with the application of the waste hierarchy, has resulted in up to 98% of LLW being diverted from disposal at the LLWR, to treatment and alternative disposal routes.

The 2016 UK Strategy for the Management of Solid Low-Level Waste from the Nuclear Industry⁽²⁶⁾ requires waste producers to seek to identify and implement opportunities for managing wastes close to the LLW/ILW boundary in ways that optimise value and benefit. As a result, industry has made progress in optimising the management of borderline ILW/LLW. This has been achieved through a range of approaches including decay storage, additional characterisation, sort/segregation, treatment, and conditioning. This has led to some waste that was previously classified as ILW to be reclassified as LLW suitable for disposal to the LLWR, enabling earlier disposal of this waste.

The UK Government and devolved administrations recognise the transformative activities and significant benefits that continue to be delivered through the UK 2007 solid LLW policy, its supporting LLW nuclear industry strategy, and the National LLW Programme.

The NDA, which implements policy of the UK Government and the devolved administrations of Scotland and Wales, continues to drive these transformative activities, and realise the significant benefits through its strategy for the management of all categories of solid radioactive waste across its estate. The NDA’s 2021 Strategy⁽²⁷⁾ builds on the commitment made in its 2019 Radioactive Waste Strategy⁽²⁸⁾ and an integrated waste programme has now been delivered. The programme, which will evolve over time as it matures, will drive changes in waste management behaviour and culture to allow waste producers to manage their radioactive waste flexibly and effectively, as well as to develop proportionate waste management solutions. The programme will be implemented in phases with the initial focus on identifying opportunities to deliver significant benefits in the areas of wastes at the LLW/ILW boundary, waste management culture, and packaging. This will deliver benefits through:

• the provision of a more integrated approach to radioactive waste management;

• optimising application of the waste management hierarchy across all radioactive waste categories;

• development of proportionate, risk-informed waste management approaches to solid radioactive waste management rather than rely solely on the simple classification-based system.

• better coordination across the industry and reduced lifecycle costs.

More efficient ways of dealing with large quantities of radioactive waste are an important focus for the global nuclear industry. The NDA’s decommissioning mission alone (i.e. excluding site remediation activities) will generate nearly 5 million cubic metres of a diverse range of radioactive wastes.

One area of NDA sponsored research is examining whether existing thermal treatments could be adapted to treat the larger quantities of mixed low/intermediate level wastes, as well as problematic wastes which are small in quantity but require specialised treatment.⁽²⁹⁾

This potential step change in waste treatment could bring significant savings for NDA based on reduced waste volumes, meaning fewer packages and stores would be required. Additional savings could result from stabilising waste and destroying chemically reactive species.

Radioactive waste disposal

Radioactive waste can range from waste that can be safely disposed in situ to those requiring disposal at conventional landfill or other more highly engineered surface facilities through to items that need to be isolated and contained deep underground in a highly engineered facility. The disposal options open to radioactive waste producers in the UK currently include:

• disposal on site.

• landfill sites for the least hazardous LLW.

• specialised repositories for LLW, such as the low-level waste repository (LLWR) in Cumbria and the low-level waste facility (LLWF) in Caithness, for waste that is not suitable for disposal at landfill sites.

In December 2018, the UK Government launched a new process to identify a suitable location for a GDF. It is a consent-based approach which requires a willing community to be a partner in the project’s development. ‘Implementing Geological Disposal - Working with Communities. An updated framework for the long-term management of higher activity radioactive waste’⁽³⁰⁾ provides the UK Government’s policy on managing higher activity radioactive waste through implementing geological disposal. This document replaces the 2014 White Paper, Implementing Geological Disposal, in England.

The key features of the siting process are:

• a consent-based approach which requires a willing community to be a partner in the project’s development;

• early investment is provided to communities engaged in the process (up to Ł1 million annually rising to up to Ł2.5 million);

• before a decision is made to seek development consent, there must be a Test of Public Support by the community to demonstrate it is willing to host a GDF;

• communities can leave the process at any time up until the Test of Public Support.

Radioactive Waste Management Ltd (RWM), now part of Nuclear Waste Services, has been given the responsibility by the NDA for implementing geological disposal of higher activity radioactive waste. As the delivery body for a GDF, RWM is responsible for safety, security, and environmental protection throughout the lifetime of the programme. RWM is responsible for complying with all the regulatory requirements on geological disposal. The GDF will be a licensed nuclear site under the Nuclear Installation Act 1965 (NIA65) and will, therefore, be subject to regulation by the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR).

GDFs and the boreholes that support their development in England fall within the definition of a ‘Nationally Significant Infrastructure Project’ in the Planning Act 2008. This means that in England planning applications for the deep investigatory boreholes (deeper than 150 m) and/or the GDF will be made directly to the Secretary of State. The application will then be examined by the Planning Inspectorate, who will make a recommendation to the Secretary of State, before the Secretary of State makes a final decision.

In support of this, the UK Government developed a National Policy Statement in respect of geological disposal infrastructure in England. The NPS for Geological Disposal Infrastructure was designated in October 2019. This sets out the basis for planning decisions in relation to the construction and operation of a geological disposal facility and for the deep borehole investigations that will be necessary to determine the suitability of any potential sites.

Some aspects of radioactive waste management policy are devolved to the Governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Scotland

The Scottish Government has its own policy published during January 2011⁽³¹⁾, regarding higher activity radioactive waste. Scottish Government policy is that the long-term management of higher activity radioactive waste should be in near-surface facilities located as near to the sites where the waste is produced as possible. The Scottish Government continues, along with the UK Government and other devolved administrations, to support a robust programme of interim storage and an ongoing programme of research and development. During December 2016, the Scottish Government published an implementation strategy, which includes dates of key phases of work, milestones, and key actions, for the effective implementation of the 2011 policy.⁽³²⁾

Wales

The Welsh Government’s current policy on implementing geological disposal is detailed in three documents: Management and Disposal of Higher Activity Waste⁽³³⁾, Geological Disposal of Higher Activity Radioactive Waste: Community Engagement and Siting Processes⁽³⁴⁾ and finally Geological disposal of higher activity radioactive waste: working with communities⁽³⁵⁾. The policy embodies the same principles of community consent as the UK Government policy in England but adapts these to a Welsh setting, recognising differences such as local government structures and land-use planning legislation in Wales.

Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland does not have any higher activity radioactive waste and there are no plans to site a geological disposal facility in Northern Ireland. Any future policy decisions in relation to geological disposal in Northern Ireland would be a matter for the Northern Ireland Executive and would be subject to community agreement as well as planning and environmental consents.

2.8. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

2.8.1. R&D organizations

In the UK, most of the civil nuclear R&D funding comes from the public sector. Public sector spending comes through a range of channels including the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), Research Councils UK, Innovate UK and through direct commissioning from Government departments.

For applied research, the UK National Nuclear Laboratory (NNL) operates as a government owned commercial enterprise and focuses much of its efforts on applied research with direct industrial uses, alongside technical consultancy services to the Government.

In the 2015 spending review, the Government committed to invest up to Ł505 million in an ambitious research and development programme named the Energy Innovation Programme (EIP) which aimed to accelerate the commercialisation of innovative clean technologies and processes into the 2020s and 2030s.

The Nuclear Innovation Programme (NIP) formed part of the EIP and provided funding for a research and innovation programme to further the UK’s civil nuclear energy objectives. This work included several sub-programmes: Advanced Fuels, Advanced Manufacturing & Materials, Fuel Recycling & Reprocessing, Advanced Reactor Design and Regulation, Strategic Toolkits & Facilities, Advanced Modular Reactors (AMR), Decommissioning & Robotics and Thermal Hydraulics Facility. The programme involved over two hundred organisations across academia, national labs, and the private sector. There is also international representation within a few groups including the Generation IV International Forum (GIF). Additionally, several specific areas on uses of nuclear energy beyond electricity, such as hydrogen generation, synthetic fuel manufacture, district and industrial heating and direct air capture were explored.

In 2020, the Government announced a Ł1 billion fund to accelerate commercialisation of low-carbon technologies, systems and business models in power and industry called the Net Zero Innovation Portfolio (NZIP). The NZIP succeeds the EIP and includes funding support for advanced nuclear technologies. The Government also announced the formation of the Ł385 million Advanced Nuclear Fund (ANF) to invest in the next generation of nuclear technologies. This includes up to Ł215 million for small modular reactors (SMRs) (for the development of a domestic smaller-scale power plant technology design) as well as funding for a research and development programme to deliver an advanced modular reactor (AMR) demonstration by the early 2030s. In Wales, Cwmni Egino is working to create sustainable job opportunities and promote economic and social regeneration at the former nuclear power station site in Trawsfynydd. Its aim is for Trawsfynydd to become the site of the first SMR under construction in the UK by 2027.

The UK also carries out fusion energy research. The UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) is the public body that leads the UK’s research into fusion technology and hosts the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy (CCFE) in Oxfordshire. UKAEA operates the world’s most advanced fusion device, the Joint European Torus (JET). UKAEA also owns and operates the smaller experimental spherical tokamak MAST-U and continues to increase UK capability through facilities, infrastructure, and skills as part of the National Fusion Technology Platform (NaFTeP) and Fusion Foundations programmes. The UK has previously been a participant in the ITER project, an international fusion facility under construction in France, through the EU’s Fusion for Energy programme. The UK recognises the value this participation presented and is pursuing association with EU programmes which will include F4E and a renewed ITER participation as a result.

In 2018/2019, the Government expenditure on nuclear R&D totalled around Ł331 million. This represents an increase of around 39% relative to 2015/16.

This increase in funding is distributed across public, private, and overseas sources. Direct funding from the Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy for 2018/19 was Ł43.5 million, more than double the direct funding from the previous departments Business Industrial Strategy (BIS) and Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) in 2015/16. Overseas funding grew by 48% to Ł80.8 million; Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) funding in 2018/19 was Ł91 million, Ł26 million higher than 2015/16 and private funding was Ł56 million, Ł11 million higher than in 2015/16.

Proportionally, the most marked changes in funding were the tripling of overseas funding from non-European Union (EU) sources and the fivefold growth in private funding of fusion R&D which represented half of all privately funded civil nuclear R&D.

The NDA and its Site Licence Companies (SLCs) account for around half of all public sector civil nuclear R&D funding. Research funded by the NDA is needs driven, focussing on waste management and decommissioning, with a funding level of Ł91 million in 2018/19. This is 40% higher than in 2015/16; however, NDA R&D funding during 2015/16 was lower than in any other year between 2010/11 and 2018/19. NDA R&D funding during 2018/19 was 10% higher than the mean annual funding during the period 2010/11 to 2017/18.

Key announcements since 2018:

• Ł80 million invested in the National Nuclear Users Facility Phase 2 (including Ł61 million for Capital Equipment and Ł12 million for support).

• Ł42 million in the National Centre for Nuclear Robotics.

• Ł86 million to be invested in the UKAEA Hydrogen-3 Advanced Technology (H3AT) at the Centre and the Fusion Technologies Facility.

• Ł22 million invested in a Fusion Energy Research Centre in Rotherham.

• During November 2021, the Government announced up to Ł210 million for Rolls-Royce SMR to further develop the design for one of the world’s first SMR, delivering on the Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan creating good high-skilled jobs. Funding for this project is being matched by private investment. The Rolls-Royce SMR programme aims to further develop their SMR design, potentially capable of deployment in the UK in the early 2030s.

2.8.2. Development of advanced nuclear power technologies

Advanced nuclear technologies could play a significant role in the UK’s transition to a low carbon economy. The Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution (November 2020), the Energy White Paper (December 2020), Net Zero Strategy (October 2021) and British Energy Security Strategy (April 2022) describe the UK Government’s commitment to large, small, and advanced nuclear projects.

In the UK advanced nuclear technologies are categorised into one of two groups:

• Small modular reactors (SMRs) are Generation III water-cooled reactors, like existing nuclear power station reactors but on a smaller scale.

• Advanced modular reactors (AMRs), also referred to as Generation IV, use novel cooling systems or fuels to offer new functionality (such as industrial process heat) and potentially a step change reduction in costs.

As part of the 2016 Energy Innovation Programme (EIP), the Nuclear Innovation Portfolio (NIP) helped support three phases of Nuclear Innovation Funding (Phases 1–3), the Advanced Manufacturing and Materials (AMM) programme and the AMR Feasibility and Development (F&D) project.

The AMR F&D Programme was announced in December 2017 to support the development of advanced nuclear technologies as part of the Nuclear Innovation Programme (NIP), which was part of the larger Ł505 million Energy Innovation Programme. Overall, the AMR F&D programme aims to develop AMR technologies enable them to be more attractive to private investors, build capability in the UK and provide technologies with early access to the UK regulators. The AMR F&D programme has two phases and two streams:

• Phase 1

• Stream one: eight projects received Ł300,000 each to conduct a feasibility study.

• Stream two: The Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR) and Environment Agency (EA) developed the regulatory capability for AMR designs with a Ł7 million contract.

• Phase 2

• Stream one: Three projects were selected (Tokamak Energy, U-Battery, and Westinghouse) and were each awarded a contract of up to Ł10 million. These contracts are due to end between October 2022 and January 2023.

• Stream two: The ONR and EA continue to develop the regulator capability with a Ł5 million contract.

Within the NIP, the Advanced Fuel Cycle Programme (AFCP) and the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Programme (AMM) were funded (Ł56 million and Ł26 million respectively). The AMM Programme focuses on increasing the manufacturing or technology readiness level (TRL) of advanced nuclear technologies and process. The AFCP focuses on fuel cycle research and developing advanced fuels through cross-UK collaboration.

Following on from the Energy Innovation Programme the Net Zero Innovation Portfolio is a Ł1 billion fund, announced in the Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan, to accelerate the commercialisation of low-carbon technologies, systems and business models in power, buildings, and industry including developing advanced modular reactors.

The Ten Point Plan also announced an Advanced Nuclear Fund (ANF) of up to Ł385 million to invest in the next generation of nuclear technologies. This includes up to Ł210 million for Rolls-Royce SMR to further develop the design for one of the world’s first Small Modular Reactor designs, potentially capable of deployment in the UK in the early 2030s. Funding for this project will be matched by private investment.

The Advanced Nuclear Fund also includes funding for an AMR Research, Development & Demonstration (RD&D) programme which aims to enable AMR demonstration by the early 2030s, at the latest. During December 2021, the UK government announced that High Temperature Gas Reactors (HTGRs will be the technology focus of this Programme. The preference for HTGRs is for the RD&D Programme only and will complement the UK government’s wider activities on nuclear policy and broader AMR technologies.

The key objective of the AMR RD&D programme is to demonstrate that AMRs can produce high temperature heat which could be used for low-carbon hydrogen production, process heat for industrial and domestic use and cost-competitive electricity generation, in time for any potential commercial AMRs to support the UK’s commitment to achieve Net Zero carbon emissions by 2050. Phase A of the RD&D programme launched during April 2022 requesting bids for reactor demonstration and fuel demonstration.

The UK has also opened Generic Design Assessment, the process which allows the regulators to assess the generic safety, security, and environmental implications of new reactor designs, to advanced nuclear technologies, a key step on the path to the deployment of advanced nuclear in the UK. 

As part of the Net Zero Strategy, Government also announced up to Ł120 million for a new Future Nuclear Enabling Fund to provide targeted support to address barriers to entry for future nuclear. This fund will be part of the measures the Government will take to inform investment decisions during the next Parliament on further nuclear projects.

During autumn 2021, alongside the UK Fusion Strategy, the UK published a consultation on regulation for fusion energy. The fusion strategy provides important context to that consultation, which concluded during December 2021. The UK Government will publish a response to the consultation later in 2022. This will enable public and private fusion programmes to plan with certainty and provide assurances to the public.

The UK Government has committed Ł222 million for the first five years of UKAEA’s Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production (STEP) programme, which aims to design, develop, and build a prototype fusion power plant capable of delivering energy to the UK grid by 2040. This will demonstrate a path to the commercial viability of fusion energy.

2.8.3. International cooperation and initiatives

The UK is committed to international cooperation and collaboration in nuclear research and development. As a member of the OECD/NEA, the IAEA and other multilateral organisations, the UK supports programmes and participates in joint projects in the field of nuclear safety, nuclear waste management and nuclear technologies.

In 2021 the UK held the Presidency of the G7 and the Nuclear Safety and Security Group (NSSG). Under the UK Presidency, the NSSG reaffirmed its commitment to promoting the highest standards of nuclear safety and security worldwide. The NSSG statement identified areas of importance and opportunities for collaboration including, supporting diverse nuclear workforces, building public trust in the peaceful uses of nuclear technologies, ensuring SMRs are used safely and securely and continued commitment to the Chornobyl NPP Decommissioning programme.

Since re-joining the Generation IV Forum (GIF) in 2018, the UK has continued to engage collaboratively with the organisation. As GIF is currently the only international forum dedicated to the discussion and exploration of the next generation of advanced nuclear technologies, the UK’s membership provides key benefits in the research and development of these technologies through the sharing of knowledge and ideas with other leading countries.

In 2018, the UK and the United States of America signed the Civil Nuclear Energy Research and Development (R&D) Action Plan to ensure nuclear energy’s contribution to both countries’ strategic energy resources, low carbon emissions targets, non-proliferation goals, and nuclear energy safety objectives.

The UK is also seeking to participate in ITER through our association to Euratom R&T and Fusion for Energy.

2.9. HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

The Nuclear Industry currently employs around 85,000 people in the UK. As in other countries with a sizeable nuclear industry, the UK nuclear workforce is ageing, and attrition rates are high as a result. The Government has tried to anticipate and address the threat of skill shortages through a collaborative approach with industry.

The NSSG is the employer-led nuclear industry skills lead and provides a UK wide partnership approach between Government, industry, training providers and the various skills bodies to address the skills challenge. The NSSG Strategic Plan, published in December 2020, aims to ensure that UK nuclear employers can recruit the highly skilled workforce they need at local, regional, and national level.

The NSSG, together with Women in Nuclear (WiN) UK, jointly launched the Nuclear Sector Gender Roadmap and the Nuclear Sector Gender Commitment. The roadmap sets out a plan of action across five themes (Attraction, Retention, Indicators, Industry Guidance and Enablers), is sector-owned and is accompanied by a Commitment Pledge which sees employers as well as individuals pledging their support to the Nuclear Sector Deal commitment target of a 40% female workforce by 2030.

The UK and French Governments jointly run the UK-France Women in Nuclear partnership. This is a mentoring programme which brings together early- to mid-career women in the British and French nuclear sectors. The initiative pairs mentees with a senior mentor from the other country and provides events and site visits to help British and French women in our respective nuclear sectors form a network.

Government backed skills initiatives include the Apprenticeship Levy and the National College for Nuclear (NCfN). The NCfN officially opened in February 2018. The college, set up with Government and industry funding, operates through a “virtual college model” aiming to deliver industry-specific courses. The Government has funded an Advanced Nuclear Skills and Innovation Campus Pilot Programme which aims to develop skills to support the deployment of Advanced Nuclear Technology. The Government also plan to deliver most of the necessary skills for the sector’s requirements through national Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education including apprenticeships and higher education in combination with organisations’ in-house training and targeted support from accredited skills organizations.

All these actions taken together will help to ensure the UK has the skilled personnel required to support the nuclear sector.

2.10. STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT

The new nuclear programme in England and Wales has included numerous public consultations, and the UK Government also consults regularly with Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and local community groups through an NGO forum and project specific stakeholder forums. The Government also engages formally or informally with the nuclear industry to do what is necessary to encourage commercial plans to come forward. This includes meeting with project developers, attending industry meetings such as the Nuclear Industry Council, and regular Ministerial engagements.

On 28 June 2018, the Nuclear Sector Deal was published. It includes a package of measures to support the sector as the UK develops low carbon power and continues to clean up its nuclear legacy. As the nuclear landscape has changed since the launch of the sector deal, to reflect this, the sector is in the process of refreshing the Nuclear Sector Deal to ensure it remains relevant into the future. HMG is supportive of the refresh and will work closely with the industry.

The UK considers it important that nuclear operators’ proposed programmes and plans for the management and disposal of solid radioactive waste are developed through wide stakeholder engagement. Guiding principles that apply to such consultations are:

• provision for early local community input into the decision-making process;

• openness and transparency at all stages;

• provision of well prepared, good quality, accurate and easily understandable briefing material;

• use of an iterative consultation process where appropriate.

RWM, the delivery body for geological disposal is engaging with people, groups, and organisations across England and Wales to help them find out more about the opportunities this long-term investment programme could offer, so they can decide whether this might be of interest in their communities and open public engagement locally.

As of March 2022, four areas in England have entered the siting process. Three areas in west Cumbria, in Copeland and Allerdale, have formed Community Partnerships (the second formal step in the process) and one in Theddlethorpe, Lincolnshire has formed a Working Group (the first formal step in the process). It is expected that geological investigations will begin this year in some of these areas.

2.11. EMERGENCY PREPARDNESS

The UK's radiation emergency response framework operates on the principle of subsidiarity, which emphases the importance of local decision making, supported (where necessary) by coordination at a higher level. The response to a major UK emergency is managed primarily at the local level by the Strategic Coordinating Group, which would normally be chaired by the police during the emergency phase and the local authority during the recovery phase. The operator, local and national agencies, and Government support the local strategic decision-making process.

A Scientific and Technical Advice Cell (STAC) is formed locally to provide advice to the Strategic Coordinating Group, particularly on public health matters. STAC comprises of representatives from local and national agencies who use their expert knowledge and the available information (e.g. plant status and environmental monitoring results) to form a common view of the situation and provide appropriate advice. At a national level, the Government is advised by the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE).

Where an emergency requires central Government co-ordination or support, a designated lead Government department (LGD) will be made responsible for the overall management of the central Government response to the incident. The Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy is the LGD for managing the response to a civil nuclear emergency in England, Scotland and Wales or an overseas nuclear emergency affecting UK interests. As LGD, BEIS is responsible for supporting local action, and, if needed, coordinating the national Government response to a civil nuclear emergency, including briefing the UK Parliament, the media, and the public at a national level. BEIS is also the competent authority for international reporting to the IAEA.

Further detailed information on the UK’s planning for nuclear emergencies can be found in the UK’s National Nuclear Emergency Planning and Response Guidance⁽³⁶⁾.

The Devolved Administrations have a key role in supporting a response, and BEIS would work closely with the relevant administrations. For example, in the event of a civil nuclear emergency in Scotland, the Scottish Government is responsible for off-site consequence management and recovery of the emergency within Scotland. The Scottish Government will activate its SG Resilience Room (SGoRR) arrangements to support the local response.

The UK Central Government's Concept of Operations (ConOps) describes the UK arrangements for responding to and recovering from emergencies, irrespective of cause or location, requiring coordinated central Government action. The UK Government has three pre-defined emergency levels, which are used to determine the level of central Government engagement and response required.

3. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

3.1.1. Regulatory authority(s)

In 2020, the UK government published its guidance document How we regulate radiological and civil nuclear safety in the UK⁽³⁷⁾, which describes the roles of regulatory bodies across the radiological and civil nuclear safety framework.

The Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR), established by Part 3 of the Energy Act 2013 (EA2013), is the UK’s independent nuclear regulator for safety, security, and safeguards. Its mission is to protect society by securing safe nuclear operations. Prior to 2013, the ONR was the Agency of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE); before 2011 it was a part of HSE.

The ONR delivers five statutory purposes to ensure safe nuclear operations now and in the long term:

• nuclear safety;

• nuclear site health and safety;

• nuclear security;

• nuclear safeguards;

• safety of civil transport of nuclear and radioactive materials.

The ONR is the statutory regulator responsible for the regulation of nuclear safety, nuclear security, nuclear safeguards and conventional health and safety at the 35 licensed nuclear sites in Great Britain. This includes the existing fleet of operating reactors, fuel cycle facilities, waste management and decommissioning sites, as well as licensed and, in part, authorised defence sites, together with the regulation of the design and construction of new nuclear facilities, including the supply chain.

In accordance with the Nuclear Industries Security Regulations (NISR) 2003, ONR regulates and approves security arrangements within the civil nuclear industry to ensure the adequacy of security arrangements for dealing with special nuclear material and special nuclear information. It also regulates the safety and security of the transport of civil nuclear and radioactive materials by road, rail, and inland waterway in Great Britain.

On 31 December 2020, the ONR became the UK’s nuclear safeguards regulator responsible for the domestic safeguards regime and operating the UK State System of Accountancy for, and Control of, Nuclear Materials (SSAC).

Consistent with international good practice, the ONR is dedicated to the maintenance and continuous improvement of safety standards for work with ionising radiation at nuclear sites, through regulation of compliance with both relevant legislation and nuclear site licence conditions. It does so by using a range of approaches including on-site inspections and assessment of submissions by licensees. In addition, the ONR sets clear expectations regarding the standards and outcomes expected. It also contributes to the development of national and international radiological and nuclear safety standards and guidance in its work with key international bodies (e.g. the IAEA, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and Nuclear Energy Agenda (OECD/NEA) and other standard setting bodies such as WENRA).

Regulatory oversight for the safe management of radioactive substances and spent fuels rests with the environment agencies: the Environment Agency (EA) in England, Natural Resources Wales (NRW), the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA), and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA) in Northern Ireland.

The environment agencies implement the regulatory framework stated in:

• The Environmental Permitting Regulations (England and Wales) 2016 (EPR16) for England and Wales;

• The Environmental Authorisations (Scotland) Regulations 2018 (EASR18) for Scotland;

• The Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (RSA93) as amended and the High activity Sealed Radioactive Sources and Orphan Sources Regulations 2005 for Northern Ireland.

The environment agencies oversee radioactive waste disposal and discharges from Britain’s nuclear sites, while the ONR oversees the storage and use of radioactive substances at licensed nuclear sites. ONR and the environment agencies co-operate in fulfilling their respective missions.

3.1.2. Licensing process

The Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (NIA65) provides the legal framework for nuclear safety and nuclear third-party liability. The NIA65 sets out a system of regulatory control based on a robust licensing process administered by the regulator (the ONR). NIA65 states that no site can be used for the purpose of installing or operating a nuclear installation (or other prescribed activities) unless a nuclear site licence has been granted by the ONR and is currently in force. Only a corporate body, such as a registered company or a public body can hold a site licence and the licence is not transferable.

The licensing process for a new nuclear power plant is divided into a series of steps:

1. Preparing to be a licensable organisation

2. Creation and collation of licence application dossier

3. Licence application

4. A. Nuclear site licence assessment

1. Consultation

5. Granting a site licence

6. A. Regulation under the licence – construction

   B. Regulation under the licence – commissioning

Detail of these steps are stated in the ONR's guide to 'Licensing Nuclear⁽³⁸⁾.

An important provision of NIA65 is that it requires the ONR to attach such conditions to a site licence as it considers necessary or desirable in the interests of safety and may attach such conditions to it at any other time. It is an offence under the law to not comply with a licence condition. There are 36 standard site licence conditions ranging from marking the site boundary to decommissioning. Licence holders must demonstrate compliance with the licence conditions in a manner appropriate to their operation, such as with a safety case to meet a stage in the plant's life, or with arrangements and procedures to meet a licence condition.

3.2. National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power

The below contains a non-exhaustive list of domestic legislation containing provisions which relate to the nuclear sector:

Nuclear Installations:

• Nuclear Installations Act 1965

• Nuclear Installations Act 1965 etc. (Repeals and Modifications) Regulations 1974

• Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (Repeal and Modifications) Regulations 1990

• Nuclear Installations (Dangerous Occurrences) Regulations 1965

• Nuclear Installations (Insurance Certificate) Regulations 2017

• Nuclear Installations Regulations 1971

• Nuclear Installations (Excepted Matter) Regulations 2017

• Nuclear Installations (Prescribed Sites and Transport) Regulations 2018

• The Energy Act 2004

• The Energy Act 2008

• The Energy Act 2013 establishing the nuclear regulator, the Office for Nuclear Regulation

• The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

• The Health and Safety at Work (Northern Ireland) Order 1978

• Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999

• The Civil Contingencies Act 2004

• Ionising Radiations Regulations 2017

• Ionising Radiations Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2017

• Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposure) Regulations 2017

• Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposure) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2018

• Radiation (Emergency Preparedness and Public Information) Regulations 2019

• Radiation (Emergency Preparedness and Public Information) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2019

• The Food and Feed (Maximum Permitted Levels of Radioactive Contamination) (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019

• Nuclear Industry (Finance) Act 1977

• Nuclear Energy (Financing) Act 2022

• Town and Country Planning Act 1990

• Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997

• Utilities Act 2000

• Planning (Hazardous Substances) Regulations 2015

• The Planning etc. (Scotland) Act 2006

• The Planning Act 2008

Environmental Protection

• Control of Pollution Act 1974

• Environmental Protection Act 1990

• Environment Act 1995

• Environmental Assessment of Plans and Programmes Regulations 2004

• Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2017

• The Infrastructure Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2017

• The Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016

• The Ionising Radiation (Basic Safety Standards) (Miscellaneous Provisions) Regulations 2018

• Justification of Practices Involving Ionising Radiation Regulations 2004

• Nuclear Reactors (Environmental Impact Assessment for Decommissioning) Regulations 1999

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Enabling Powers) (England) Regulations 2005

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Modification of Enactments) (England) Regulations 2006

• Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010

Scotland

• Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (in force in Scotland and Northern Ireland)

• The Radioactive Substances (Basic Safety Standards) (Scotland) Regulations 2000

• The Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations 2000

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations 2007

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Scotland) (Amendment) Regulations 2007

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2009

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Scotland) (Amendment) Regulations 2010

• The Environmental Authorisations (Scotland) Regulations 2018

Northern Ireland

• Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (in force in Northern Ireland and Scotland)

• Waste and Contaminated Land (Northern Ireland) Order 1997 and the Hazardous Waste Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005

• The Radioactive Contaminated Land Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (as amended)

• The Radioactive Substances (Basic Safety Standards) (Northern Ireland) Regulations 2003

• The Radioactive Substances Exemption (Northern Ireland) Order 2011

• The Radioactive Substances (Modification of Enactments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2018

Security

• Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 

• Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003 (as amended) 

• The Uranium Enrichment Technology (Prohibition on Disclosure) Regulations 2004

• Energy Act 2004

• Energy Act 2013

• Official Secrets Act 1911

• Official Secrets (Prohibited Places) Orders 1955, 1975, 1994 and Official Secrets (Prohibited Places) (Amendment) Order 1993

• Nuclear Material (Offences) Act 1983 

• Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008

• Extradition Act 2003

• National Security & Investment Act 2021

• Nuclear Security (Secretary of State Security Directions) Regulations 2018 

• Serious Organised Crime and Policing Act 2005

• Terrorism Act 2006

Safeguards

• Nuclear Safeguards and Electricity (Finance) Act 1978

• Energy Act 2013

• Nuclear Safeguards Act 2000

• Nuclear Safeguards (Notification) Regulations 2004

• Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018

• Nuclear Safeguards (EU Exit) Regulations 2019

• Nuclear Safeguards (Fissionable Material and Relevant International Agreements) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019

• Nuclear Safeguards (Fees) Regulations 2021

Transport

Road, rail, and inland waterways:

• The Radioactive Material (Road Transport) Act 1991

• The Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations 2009 as amended

• The Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2010 as amended

Air:

• The Civil Aviation Act 1982

• The Air Navigation (Dangerous Goods) Regulations 2002

• Regulation (EU) No 965/2012 laying down technical requirements and administrative procedures related to air operations pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council (the Air Ops Regulation) as retained (and amended in UK domestic law) under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

• The Air Navigation Order 2016

• Regulation (EU) No. 2018/1139 on common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Union Aviation Safety Agency (The Basic Regulation) as retained (and amended in UK domestic law) under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018

Sea:

• The Merchant Shipping Act 1995

• The Merchant Shipping (Dangerous Goods and Marine Pollutants) Regulations 1997

• Merchant Shipping (Carriage of Packaged Irradiated Nuclear Fuel etc.) Regulations 2000

• The Transfrontier Shipment of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel (EU Exit) Regulations 2019

General

• Electricity Act 1989

REFERENCES

APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL, MULTILATERAL AND BILATEAL AGREEMENTS

TABLE 8. INTERNATIONAL TREATIES, CONVENTIONS AND AGREEMENTS

Agreement on privileges and immunities of the IAEA	Signature: Ratification:	1 December 1959 19 September 1961
Convention on Nuclear Safety	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from(39):	20 September 1994 17 January 1996 24 October 1996
Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	29 September 1997 12 March 2001 18 June 2001
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	26 September 1986 9 February 1990 12 March 1990
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	26 September 1986 9 February 1990 12 March 1990
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter (London Convention) 1996 Protocol to the London Convention	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from: Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	29 December 1972 17 November 1975 17 December 1975 22 September 1997 15 December 1998 24 March 2006
Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	13 June 1980 6 September 1991 6 October 1991 8 April 2010 8 May 2016
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	03 November 1992 15 July 1997 25 March 1998
Convention relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material	Signature:	17 December 1971
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea	Signature and Accession: Applicable to the UK from:	25 July 1997 25 August 1997
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (ESPOO Convention)	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	26 February 1991 10 October 1997 8 January 1998
Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention)	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	25 June 1998 23 February 2005 24 May 2005
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage	Signature:	11 November 1964
Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28 January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16 November 1982 (Paris Convention)	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	29 July 1960 23 February 1966 1 April 1968
Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28 January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16 November 1982 (Brussels Convention)	Signature Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	31 January 1963 24 March 1966 1 August 1991
Protocol to amend the Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy as amended by the Additional Protocol of 28 January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16 November 1982	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	12 February 2004 17 December 2021 01 January 2022
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons	Signature: Ratification: Applicable to the UK from:	1 July 1968 27 November 1968 5 March 1970

Co-operation agreements with IAEA and bilateral agreements with other countries in area of Nuclear Power

The UK is a member of the OECD/NEA and its standing committees and is fully involved in the IAEA’s work on safety, security, safeguards, and nuclear energy. The following are current safeguards agreements with the IAEA:

1. Agreement between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the International Atomic Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons. Entry into force: 31 December 2020. Published by IAEA as INFCIRC/951.

2. Protocol Additional to the agreement at (2) above, also known as the ‘UK Additional Protocol’. Entry into force: 31 December 2020. Published by IAEA as INFCIRC/951/Add.1.

The UK has civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreements (NCAs) in place as follows:

TABLE 9. NUCLEAR COOPERATION AGREEMENTS

Country	Year Signed	Entry into force
Australia	2018	5 April 2019
Canada	2018	29 March 2019
China	1985	3 June 1985
Euratom	2020	1 Jan 2020
India	2015	16 December 2016
Japan	1998	12 October 1998
Jordan	2009	23 November 2016
Korea, Republic of	1991	27 November 1991
Russian Federation	1996	3 December 1996
United Arab Emirates	2010	11 August 2011
United States of America	2018	31 December 2020

ONR has Information Exchange Arrangements with overseas nuclear safety regulators in Canada, Finland, France, Ireland, South Africa, and the USA.

APPENDIX 2: MAIN ORGANISATIONS, INSTITUTIONS AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES

TABLE 10. ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES

Organisation	Address	Contact Detail(s)
Nuclear Directorate, Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy	1 Victoria Street London SW1H 0ET Tel: +44 (0) 020 7215 5000	Tel: +44 (0) 020 7215 5000 Email: enquiries@beis.gov.uk Website: https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-business-energy-and-industrial-strategy
Scottish Government	St. Andrew's House Regent Road Edinburgh EH1 3DG	(+44) (0)131 244 4000 ceu@gov.scot Website: http://www.gov.scot/Home
Welsh Government	Cathays Park Cardiff CF10 3NQ	+44 (0) 1443 845 500 Email: CustomerHelp@Wales.GSI.Gov.UK Website: http://gov.wales/?lang=en
Nuclear Decommissioning Authority	Head Office Herdus House Westlakes Science & Technology Park Moor Row Cumbria CA24 3HU	Tel: +44 (0)1925 80 2001 (Switchboard) Tel: +44 (0)1925 80 2077 (General Enquiries) Fax: +44 (0)1925 80 2003 Email: enquiries@nda.gov.uk Website: www.nda.gov.uk
Office for Nuclear Regulation Building	Building 4, Redgrave Court Merton Road Bootle L20 7HS	Email: contact@onr.gov.uk Website: www.onr.org.uk
Environment Agency	National Customer Contact Centre PO Box 544 Rotherham S60 1BY	Tel: +44 (0)3708 506 506. +44 (0) 1709 389 201 Email: enquiries@environment-agency.gov.uk Website: www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Scottish Environment Protection Agency	Corporate Office Erskine Court Castle Business Park Stirling FK9 4TR	Tel: +44 (0)1786 452595 Fax: +44 (0)1786 446885 Website: www.sepa.org.uk
Natural Resources Wales	Ty Cambria 29 Newport Road Cardiff CF24 0TP Tel: +44 (0)300 065 3000	Tel: +44 (0)300 065 3000 Email: enquiries@naturalresourceswales.gov.uk Website: https://naturalresources.wales/?lang=en
Low Level Waste Repository Ltd	Holmrook Cumbria CA19 1XP	Tel: +44 (0)19467 24800 Email: customerteam@llwrsite.com Website: www.llwrsite.com
Magnox Limited	Berkeley Centre Berkeley Gloucestershire GL13 9PB	Tel: +44 (0)1453 814000 Website: www.magnoxsites.co.uk
Sellafield Limited	Seascale Cumbria CA20 1PG	Tel: +44 (0)19467 28333 Fax: +44 (0)19467 28987 Email: enquiries@sellafieldsites.com Website: www.sellafieldsites.com/
Springfields Fuels Ltd	Springfields Salwick Preston PR4 0XJ	Tel: +44 (0)1772 762000 Email: springfields.enquiries@westinghouse.com Website: www.westinghousenuclear.com/springfields
URENCO UK Limited	Capenhurst Chester England CH1 6ER	Tel: +44 (0)151 473 4000 Fax: +44 (0)151 473 7599 Email: enquiries@urenco.com Website: www.urenco.com
Research Sites Restoration Limited	Harwell Site Harwell Oxford Didcot OX11 0RA	Tel: +44 (0) 1235 820220
Research Sites Restoration Limited	Winfrith Site Winfrith Newburgh Dorchester Dorset DT2 8DH	Tel: +44 01235 820220 Website: www.research-sites.com
National Nuclear Laboratory	Central Laboratory Sellafield Seascale Cumbria CA20 1PG	Tel: +44 019467 79000 Website: www.nnl.co.uk
Nuclear Industry Association	5th Floor, Tower House 10 Southampton Street London WC2E 7HA	Tel: +44 0207766 6640 Website: https://www.niauk.org/
UK Atomic Energy Authority	Culham Science Centre Abingdon OX14 3DB	Tel: +441235 528822 Website: http://www.ccfe.ac.uk/
National Skills Academy for Nuclear	Head Office Europe Way Cockermouth CA13 0RJ	Tel: +44 01900 898120 Email: enquiries@nsan.co.uk
EDF Energy UK Ltd	40 Grosvenor Place Victoria London SW1X 7EN	Tel: +44 (0)20 7242 9050

Coordinator information

Name of report coordinator(s): Aman Grover

Institution: Department of Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy

Contact details : aman.grover@beis.gov.uk

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⁽¹⁾ This does not place a limit on the number of development consent orders which may be granted for any type of generating infrastructure set out in the energy national policy statements.

⁽²⁾ http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/contents

⁽³⁾ Climate Change Act 2008 (2050 Target Amendment Order 2019 - https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2019/9780111187654

⁽⁴⁾ https://www.gov.uk/guidance/carbon-budgets

⁽⁵⁾ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1051408/2020-final-greenhouse-gas-emissions-statistical-release.pdf

⁽⁶⁾ https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2022/15/contents/enacted

⁽⁷⁾ Excluding prospects.

⁽⁸⁾ Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES) - https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/solid-fuels-and-derived-gases-chapter-2-digest-of-united-kingdom-energy-statistics-dukes

⁽⁹⁾  This does not place a limit on the number of development consent orders which may be granted for any type of generating infrastructure set out in the energy national policy statements. 

⁽¹⁰⁾ ONR - Licence Condition Handbook

⁽¹¹⁾ ONR Enforcement Policy Statement

⁽¹²⁾ Management of Continual Improvement for Facilities and Activities: A Structured Approach | IAEA

⁽¹³⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/518669/Nuclear_Decommissioning_Authority_Strategy_effective_from_April_2016.pdf

⁽¹⁴⁾ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/973438/NDA_Strategy_2021_A.pdf

⁽¹⁵⁾ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1062302/Business_Plan_2022-2025_220322.pdf

⁽¹⁶⁾ Magnox plants.

⁽¹⁷⁾ Please note that for “Decommission Strategy” column, will become clearer once the NDA and Magnox Ltd have developed the business case for site specific approach.

⁽¹⁸⁾ This does not place a limit on the number of development consent orders which may be granted for any type of generating infrastructure set out in the energy national policy statements.

⁽¹⁹⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/towards-fusion-energy-the-uk-fusion-strategy

⁽²⁰⁾ http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/32/pdfs/ukpga_20080032_en.pdf

⁽²¹⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/42628/3797-guidance-funded-decommissioning-programme-consult.pdf

⁽²²⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/autumn-budget-and-spending-review-2021-documents

⁽²³⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/beis-public-attitudes-tracker-winter-2021

⁽²⁴⁾ UK Government (2007). Management of Solid Low Level Radioactive Waste in the United Kingdom. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/managing-waste#solid-low-level-wastes

⁽²⁵⁾ On 31 Jan 2022, Nuclear Waste Services was launched, bringing together into one organisation Low Level Waste Repository Limited, Radioactive Waste Management Limited and the NDA’s Integrated Waste Management Programme.

⁽²⁶⁾ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/497114/NI_LLW_Strategy_Final.pdf

⁽²⁷⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nuclear-decommissioning-authority-strategy-effective-from-march-2021

⁽²⁸⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/nda-radioactive-waste-management-strategy/outcome/radioactive-waste-strategy-september-2019

⁽²⁹⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/case-studies/vitrification-for-diverse-types-of-waste

⁽³⁰⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/implementing-geological-disposal-working-with-communities-long-term-management-of-higher-activity-radioactive-waste

⁽³¹⁾ https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-higher-activity-radioactive-waste-policy-2011/

⁽³²⁾ https://www.gov.scot/publications/higher-activity-waste-implementation-strategy/

⁽³³⁾ https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-06/policy-on-the-management-and-disposal-of-higher-activity-radioactive-waste.pdf

⁽³⁴⁾ https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-06/geological-disposal-of-higher-activity-radioactive-waste-community-engagement-and-siting-processes.PDF

⁽³⁵⁾ https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-04/geological-disposal-of-higher-activity-radioactive-waste-guidance-for-communities.pdf

⁽³⁶⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-nuclear-emergency-planning-and-response-guidance

⁽³⁷⁾ https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/how-we-regulate-radiological-and-civil-nuclear-safety-in-the-uk

⁽³⁸⁾ https://www.onr.org.uk/licensing-nuclear-installations.pdf

⁽³⁹⁾ ‘Applicable to the UK from’ should be interpreted as the date on which the United Kingdom acceded to the treaty or convention in question.