Overarching Turkish energy policy focuses on assuring the supply of energy in a reliable, sufficient, timely manner. Energy and electricity production are to be obtained in economical and clean terms, and in such a way as to support and orient targeted growth and social development. Prepared by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR), the National Energy and Mining Policy of Türkiye has developed plans in line with three considerations: security of supply, indigenous production and potential projections of the foreseeable market.

1. The main aims of security of supply are to achieve diversification of energy resources and markets, sustainability and reliability of resource transfer, and a reduction in the cost of imported energy products. Security of supply is also closely related to a strong economy and national security. The issue of security of supply is discussed under five headings: diversification of energy resources and supplier countries, natural gas and oil storage facilities, capacity to provide natural gas to the system, energy delivery infrastructure and energy efficiency.

2. Indigenous energy production using national resources is important in achieving energy independence. In this regard, indigenization is critically important for Türkiye to add a new dimension to its policies and strategies to reduce the country’s dependence on imports. Many public and private sector institutions and organizations, in particular the MENR, are expending efforts to increase the use of national energy resources. In order to decrease Türkiye’s dependence on imported energy, there are plans to increase the use of renewable energy resources, domestic coal and nuclear energy, and to tap into domestic oil and natural gas reserves.

3. Türkiye intends to improve its electricity and natural gas market, restructure institutions in the energy sector and rehabilitate the infrastructure of the energy supply. The National Energy and Mining Policy reveals several strategies and objectives in order to create a more foreseeable, transparent and investor friendly energy market. In recent years, a series of major energy projects have been signed and these projects will contribute to Türkiye’s goal of having a greater role as an energy trading hub.

Policy issues related to energy are within the responsibility of the MENR. Energy planning studies, taking into account short, medium and long term policies and measures, are carried out by the MENR within the framework of the above listed objectives.

Although conventional resources exist in Türkiye, these resources are not sufficient to meet the projected growth in energy demand, except for lignite and hydropower. To date, 68.9% of energy demand is met through imports. Energy planning studies indicate that Türkiye’s energy demand will continue to increase in parallel with economic development, industrialization and urbanization. In this context, Türkiye has intensified efforts at further diversification in primary energy sources, imports (diversifying in both type and origin), technologies and infrastructures, while accelerating the production and utilization of remaining domestic resources potential and efficiency gains along the energy supply–demand chain.

Türkiye became a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2004, based on the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”. The law regarding the accession of Türkiye to the UNFCCC was adopted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in October 2003 and entered into force on 24 May 2004. The Kyoto Protocol was ratified by the Turkish Parliament on 5 February 2009. Improvement of energy efficiency, greater utilization of renewable sources, deployment of clean coal technologies and the introduction of nuclear power are among the main strategies involved in addressing the challenges within the energy–environment linkage.

In order to meet the increasing energy demand without disruption, Türkiye continues to develop policies to meet a considerable part of its energy demand by increasing power generation from domestic resources, enabling energy markets to gain depth.

Available energy sources are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES^*

Hydropower’s and other renewable energy sources’ (geothermal, solar and wind) values given as their maximum available potentials.

^* Geothermal potential is equal to 0.0072 TW(e). Fossil fuels include lignite and hard coal sources.

Source: Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.

Historical energy data are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Total energy derived from primary and secondary generation sources. Figures do not reflect potential heat output that may result from electricity co-generation.

—: data not available.

Source(s): National Energy Balance Table

In parallel with economic growth and social development, electricity demand has shown a significant increase over the past decades, reaching 329.6 TWh by the end of 2021.

Türkiye has coal (mostly lignite), natural gas, renewable and hydropower resources for domestic electricity generation (Fig. 1). The share of domestic resources for electricity generation was 51.3% in 2021. Türkiye attaches utmost importance to the utilization of the remaining potential, with due regard, to cope with the risks stemming from import dependency. Integration of nuclear power plants into the Turkish electricity grid is also being considered as an essential tool to enhance supply security, while strengthening greenhouse gas emission mitigation efforts.

The Electricity Market Law (Law No. 6446) was enacted in 2013 in order to conduct market operating activities in a more effective way. In addition, a new corporation, the Energy Markets Operating Corporation (EPIAS), was introduced under this new law, creating a formal electricity wholesale market as well. Since April 2015, EPIAS is the new operator of the wholesale market for electricity which includes the day-ahead market and a continuous intraday market since July 2015.

The Turkish transmission network has cross-border lines to the electricity grids of all its neighbouring countries. However, Türkiye is synchronously connected only to Greece and Bulgaria.

The MENR is the main body of the Turkish energy sector and is responsible for the preparation and implementation of energy policies, plans and programmes, in coordination with its dependent and related institutions and other public and private entities. The Ministry is responsible for monitoring and taking measures regarding the security of the electricity supply.

The Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA) is the regulator of the electricity, natural gas, downstream petroleum and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) products markets. EMRA is responsible for granting licenses for activities in the gas and electricity markets for generation (including electricity generated from renewable sources), transmission, distribution, wholesale, retail, import and export.

The Electricity Generation Company (EUAS) is the state owned generation company responsible for the operation of existing power plants owned by the public.

The Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEIAS) is the transmission system operator and is responsible for planning, installing and operating the transmission grid, for providing system security such that transmission constraints will be minimized.

Within the context of the Decree Law No. 703 published in the Official Gazette No. 30473 (bis) of 9 July 2018, Turkish Electricity Trading and Contracting Co. (TETAS) and EUAS unified under the structure of EUAS and duties, authorities and responsibilities of former TETAS are now being performed by EUAS.

Distribution companies: Twenty-one distribution companies with their own geographical region are all legally unbundled and privatized through transfer of operating rights contracts. The ownership of the distribution network asset remains with the state (with TETAS as the holding company)

Electricity production, consumption and capacity are shown in Table 3, and energy related ratios are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

—: data not available.

Source: MENR-TEIAS

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

*Latest available data.

Source: RDS-1 and RDS-2

—: data not available.

Since 1970, Türkiye has had plans in place to establish nuclear power generation capabilities. In order to meet the increasing domestic demand for energy and reduce its dependence on energy imports, various initiatives were undertaken in the past to build Türkiye’s NPP.

Regarding the nuclear history of Türkiye, studies to build an NPP in Türkiye started in 1965. Later, between 1967 and 1970, a feasibility study was undertaken by a foreign consulting company to build a 300–400 MW NPP. This plant would have been in operation in 1977. However, the project did not come to fruition because of problems related to site selection, among other reasons.

In 1973, the Turkish Electricity Authority (TEK) decided to build an 80 MW(e) prototype plant. However, in 1974, the project was cancelled because it could have delayed the construction of a greater capacity NPP. Instead of this prototype plant, TEK decided to build a 600 MW(e) NPP in southern coast of Türkiye.

Site selection studies were made in 1974 and 1975, and the Gulnar–Akkuyu location was found suitable for the construction of the first NPP. In 1976, the Atomic Energy Commission granted a site license for Akkuyu. In 1977, a bid was prepared, and the ASEA-ATOM and STAL-LAVAL companies were awarded the contract. Contract negotiations continued until 1980. However, in September 1980, the withdrawal of a loan guarantee led to the project’s cancellation.

A third attempt was made in 1980. Three companies were awarded the contract to build four nuclear power plants: one Canada deuterium–uranium (CANDU) reactor unit by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), one pressurized water reactor unit by Kraftwerk Union AG (KWU) in Akkuyu, and two boiling water reactor units by General Electric in Sinop. Due to Türkiye’s request to apply the build–operate–transfer (BOT) model, KWU resigned from the bid. Although AECL accepted the BOT model, it insisted upon a governmental guarantee of the BOT credit. The Turkish government refused to give such a guarantee, and consequently the project was cancelled.

In 1993, the Supreme Council for Science and Technology identified nuclear electricity generation as the project of third highest priority for the country. In view of this decision, the Turkish Electricity Generation and Transmission Company (TEAS) included a nuclear power plant project in its 1993 investment programme. In 1995, TEAS selected the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) as the consultant for the preparation of the bid specifications. The bid process started in 1996. Three consortia (AECL, Nuclear Power International and Westinghouse) offered proposals in 1997.

In July 2000, after a series of delays, the government decided to postpone the project.

Following this delay, the Law on Construction and Operation of Nuclear Power Plants and the Sale of Energy Generated (Law No. 5710) was ratified; it entered into force on 21 November 2007.

The Regulation Regarding the Principles, Procedures, and Incentives for the Contracts and the Contest that will be made within the context of the Law on the Construction and Operation of Nuclear Power Plants and the Sale of the Energy Generated was published in the Official Gazette on 19 March 2008. The purpose of the regulation is to regulate the procedures and principles regarding the construction and operation of NPPs for electrical energy production, and to regulate energy sales.

In accordance with this, the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) issued a set of criteria that establish general principles to ideally be met by investors.

A competition for construction and operation of NPPs and energy sale was held on 24 September 2008 by the TETAS for the construction of NPP units on the Akkuyu site.

Only one consortium bid for the competition. After evaluating the technical documents provided by the consortium, TAEK announced, on 19 December 2008, that the proposed NPP met TAEK’s criteria.

The last envelope provided by the consortium on 24 September 2008, including the energy sale unit price, was opened by TETAS on 19 January 2009. After assessment, the competition performed on 24 September 2008 was canceled by TETAS on 20 November 2009.

2.1.1.1. Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant

Direct negotiations with the Russian Federation to build an NPP on the Akkuyu site in Türkiye started in February 2010 and concluded with an intergovernmental agreement (IGA) based on a build–own–operate (BOO) model. The agreement was signed on 12 May 2010. It aims to build nuclear capacity in Türkiye through mutual cooperation, ranging from NPP construction and operation in Akkuyu–Mersin, to decommissioning.

For the implementation phase of the project, the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant Electricity Generation Joint Stock Company was established on 13 December 2010. On 7 February 2011, TAEK recognized Akkuyu NPP Electricity Generation JSC as the owner, according to the Decree on Licensing of Nuclear Installations. Akkuyu NPP Electricity Generation JSC was renamed and registered as Akkuyu Nuclear JSC (Akkuyu Project Company or APC) in September 2014.

In 2011, the Akkuyu site, with the existing site licence, was given to APC. Then, APC started site investigations in Akkuyu to update site characteristics and parameters, according to the national procedures laid out in the Decree on Licensing of Nuclear Installations. In May 2012, APC submitted an Updated Site Report (USR) to TAEK. A review and assessment were conducted by TAEK, its Advisory Committee on Nuclear Safety and the IAEA, and a positive decision for the USR was given in December 2013. Then, a site parameters report (SPR) was submitted to TAEK in November 2014. The updated SPR (Rev. 2), which addresses the site licence’s validity, was submitted to TAEK in December 2015. The report was updated according to TAEK’s evaluation findings. The SPR (Rev. 4), which was presented by Akkuyu Nuclear JSC and which includes the results of detailed site investigations performed at the NPP site and the precise values of the project parameters, was approved by TAEK on 9 February 2017.

On 3 March 2017, Akkuyu Nuclear JSC (APC) applied to TAEK for a construction licence for Akkuyu NPP Unit 1 and was awarded a limited work permit on 20 October 2017. Under this permit, APC began construction of that part of the building and infrastructure unrelated to nuclear safety, such as the port, road and personnel buildings. After reviewing the licence application documents, TAEK issued the construction licence on 2 April 2018. With this licence, APC started on construction of nuclear safety related buildings and infrastructures, such as a reactor or turbine buildings. On 3 April 2018, construction of the first unit of Akkuyu NPP formally launched with the pouring of concrete for the sub-base foundation of the nuclear island.

Akkuyu NPP’s 2nd and 3rd units were awarded construction licenses by Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NDK) on 26 August 2019 and 13 November 2020 respectively. Application for a construction license for the 4th unit was submitted to NDK on 12 May 2020. The construction of 2nd and 3rd units of Akkuyu NPP formally launched with the pouring of first concrete for the sub-base foundation of the nuclear island on 8 April 2020 and 10 March 2021, respectively.

APC applied to the Ministry of the Environment and Urbanism (MoEU) for an environmental impact assessment (EIA) on 2 December 2011 and submitted the EIA to MoEU on 6 December 2013. An affirmative decision was given on 1 December 2014.

APC obtained an electricity generation licence for 49 years from EMRA on 15 June 2017. In addition, APC and TETAS signed a power purchase agreement (PPA) on 30 December 2017.

On 2 December 2019, the connection agreement between APC and TEIAS was signed. Within the framework of the agreement, the power generated by Akkuyu NPP will be transmitted from the Akkuyu NPP switchgear via 400 kV power lines to six transformer substations that are part of Türkiye’s unified energy system. The total length of the high voltage lines that will be built as part of the Akkuyu NPP power distribution scheme will exceed 1000 km. The execution of the transmission grid connection agreement is an essential requirement of the Turkish Electricity Market Law and a number of other regulatory and legal acts of the Republic of Türkiye. All the power lines to be connected to Akkuyu NPP will be built and maintained by the TEIAS. Fundamental aspects of the IGA to build and operate a nuclear power plant on the Akkuyu site in Türkiye include the following:

• The Russian party established a joint stock project company in Türkiye initially with a 100% share.

• The Turkish party allocated Akkuyu site to the project company free of charge until the decommissioning of the NPP.

• The Russian party’s share will never be below 51% at any time (and the Government of the Russian Federation will be the guarantor of the project).

• APC will be the owner of the NPP.

• The general contractor will be JSC Atomstroyexport (ASE).

• The Russian party shall provide funding to ASE for the construction of the NPPs.

• The 15-year PPA will be awarded to APC for:

• 70% of the electricity generated by Units 1 and 2;

• 30% of the electricity generated by Units 3 and 4.

• Generated electricity shall be bought by TETAS through a PPA for 15 years at USD $0.1235/kWh (fixed price, no escalation) on weighted average.

• In case of less production than the volume stipulated in the PPA, APC shall fulfill its obligations by providing the missing electricity.

• Nuclear fuel shall be sourced from suppliers based on long term agreements entered into between APC and the suppliers.

• Subject to separate agreements that may be agreed by the parties, spent nuclear fuel of Russian origin may be reprocessed in the Russian Federation.

• APC is responsible for decommissioning and waste management for the NPP. Within this framework, APC will make the necessary payments to relevant funds.

• For the PPA period:

• USD $0.0015/kWh shall be paid for spent fuel and radioactive waste management;

• USD $0.0015/kWh shall be paid for decommissioning.

• With regard to electricity sold outside the framework of the PPA, APC will make necessary payments to relevant funds stipulated by the applicable Turkish laws and regulations.

• Turkish companies and citizens will be included in the project to the extent possible.

• The project will be subject to all applicable laws, regulations and codes in Türkiye. All necessary licences, permits and approvals from related governmental organizations shall be obtained by APC.

2.1.1.2. Sinop Nuclear Power Plant

Electricity Generation Joint Stock Company (EUAS) is a state owned company and the largest electricity generation company in Türkiye. EUAS operates the existing hydraulic and thermal power plants, including their maintenance, repair and rehabilitation. EUAS has been given the role of the state operating organization for NPPs that are owned and operated by the state (as a whole owner or shareholder).

EUAS was recognized by TAEK as the Owner of Sinop NPP project on 22 August 2012.

An agreement between the Government of the Republic of Türkiye and the Government of Japan on Cooperation for Development of Nuclear Power Plants and the Nuclear Power Industry in the Republic of Türkiye was signed on 3 May 2013. This agreement entered into force on 31 July 2015 after completion of diplomatic procedures.

EUAS International Incorporated Cell Company (EUAS International ICC) was established in 2015 as an oversea company of EUAS in order to manage and develop NPP projects on behalf of EUAS.

In the context of the Sinop NPP project, feasibility studies and development of a feasibility report for site suitability evaluation and financial model development were completed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the leading partner of the Japanese-led consortium to build the Sinop NPP project, and submitted to MENR in June 2018. After the review of the feasibility report by MENR and based on the results of it, it was decided not to continue with Japan on the Sinop NPP project due to outcomes of the feasibility report. Türkiye is seeking other possibilities to continue the project.

Besides that, the Sinop NPP project EIA process was completed by EUAS International ICC with a positive EIA decision of MoEU on 11 September 2020.

Additionally, EUAS International ICC pursued and completed site characterization studies to license the Sinop NPP site without the Japanese Consortium and prepared the Sinop NPP Site Report for official submission to the NDK to obtain the Site License.

In 2022, it was restructured as EUAS International Joint Stock Company (EUAS International JSC).

2.1.1.3. Third nuclear power plant

Currently, Türkiye is in talks with China to conduct a site selection study to build four large-scale nuclear reactors in the Thrace region of northwestern Türkiye.

2.1.1.4. Small Modular Reactor

A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between EUAS International JSC and Rolls-Royce to set forth the framework to conduct a staged feasibility project for UK SMR technology. In the first phase, a pre-feasibility study was conducted to gain an overall understanding of the baseline UK SMR technology and the associated business plan. The next phase, as prospected in the MoU, is to perform a detailed feasibility assessment of the UK SMR.

The organizational structure of Türkiye’s nuclear power plant projects is shown in Fig. 2. The MENR is the main body of the Turkish energy sector. It is responsible for the preparation and implementation of energy policies, plans and programmes, in coordination with its dependent and related institutions and with other public and private entities.

The EMRA was established by Laws No. 4628 and 4646. The Law on the Electricity Market, published in the Official Gazette on 3 March 2001, was enacted to unbundle electricity market activities, enable progress into a liberalized electricity market and provide fair and transparent market regulation.

Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) was the regulatory body of Türkiye. An independent nuclear regulatory authority, the NDK, as well as a national nuclear technical support organization, Nuclear Technical Support Incorporated Company (NÜTED), were established in 2019, based on the Statutory Decree Law No. 702 enacted in 2018. Regulatory powers, responsibilities, activities and the related personnel of TAEK were transferred to the Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NDK). TAEK merged with the Boren Research Institute and Rare Earth Elements Research Institute which is affiliated with the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources while keeping its responsibilities to form the Turkish Energy, Nuclear, and Mineral Research Agency (TENMAK). Meanwhile TAEK has given the responsibilities of nuclear research and training and also the responsibility to act as the national radioactive waste disposal organization to TENMAK.

TENMAK conducts experimental and theoretical studies and collaborates in projects with universities and other related organizations. The research infrastructure at the former Cekmece Nuclear Research and Training Center of TAEK (ÇNAEM) is especially devoted to research and development activities addressing issues for nuclear reactor and fuel technology. The premises of ÇNAEM was transferred to TENMAK. Nuclear and radiation technology applications, acceleratory research and application have been carried out by the Ankara Campus of NÜKEN in TENMAK.

The MoEU has jurisdiction for making environmental assessment reports for power plants, including nuclear power plants.

The EUAS is responsible for electricity wholesale sales and purchases.

The TEIAS is the transmission system operator and is responsible for planning, installing and operating the transmission grid.

FIG. 2. Governmental and Organizational Infrastructure.

The nuclear policy of the country includes R&D activities concerning the application of nuclear technology in various sectors such as energy, environment, human health, industry and agriculture.

Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) was the solely governmental entity undertaking two major missions: as the research and development organization, carrying out the coordination and support all activities in nuclear field and also as the regulatory body of Türkiye, conducting all regulatory activities concerning nuclear and radiation safety from 1982 to 2018. Just after the establishment of NDK by a decree (Decree No. 702 dated 2 July 2018), TENMAK was established as the mainly scientific and technological research organization in the fields of the energy, mining, ionizing radiation, particle accelerators and nuclear technology by Presidential Decree (CBK) Nos 4 and 57 as affiliated to the MENR. It consolidates the TAEK, the National Boron Research Institute and Rare Earth Elements Research Institute.

TENMAK conducts activities to serve the country and humanity in the fields of energy, mining, ionizing radiation, particle accelerators and nuclear technology, to increase the competitiveness of Türkiye, to meet the needs of innovation, to ensure the production of new products and improvement of existing ones, and to provide researchers with scientific media. It operates in cooperation with private law persons to carry out scientific and technological research, to coordinate and encourage these research activities, to contribute to research and development activities, to carry out scientific, technical and administrative studies, and to organize, to support, to establish and coordinate collaborations.

Main organization of TENMAK consists of five technical institutions as given below:

1. Nuclear Energy Research Institute (NUKEN – Ankara and Istanbul Campuses),

2. Boron Research Institute (BOREN),

3. Rare Earth Elements Research Institute (NATEN),

4. Energy Research Institute (ENAREN),

5. Clean Energy Research Institute (TEMEN).

Besides the ongoing Akkuyu nuclear power plant project, there are mainly two research reactors in Türkiye. First research reactor in Türkiye (TR-1) was commissioned as 1 MW in 1962 for the purpose of research and also production of isotopes for industrial and medical purposes. It was operational from 1962 to 1977 and has since been dismantled. In 1981, a pool type 5 MW reactor (TR 2) was built in the same building and operated at 5 MW between 1984 and 1994 for irradiation purposes. It operated at low power levels between 1995 and 2009 due to updates of seismic evaluation studies of the reactor building that were required. In 2009, the reactor was shut down to exchange the reactor core from mixed HEU-LEU core to fully LEU core. In 2013, the project on strengthening of the reactor building was completed. An updated safety analysis report (SAR) and other related documents are prepared and submitted to nuclear regulatory authority to get an operation license. Its current status is extended shutdown.

The second research reactor in Türkiye, ITU TRIGA MARK II, reached its first criticality on 11 March 1979. It is a pool type, light water cooled and graphite reflected reactor. The ITU TRIGA MARK II reactor is capable of steady state operation at power levels up to 250 kW and also it has a pulsing mode operation where powers as high as 1200 MW are achieved for about 10 msec.

According to national legislation enacted in 2018, TENMAK also has responsibilities regarding national radioactive waste management activities and projects. TENMAK is in charge of

• Preparing the National Radioactive Waste Management Plan,

• Conducting and coordinating all kinds of activities related to radioactive waste management such as collection, treatment, processing, transportation, storage and disposal of radioactive wastes,

• Carrying out the tasks related to the participation of the Authority in the Accounts Management Board,

• Establishing, installing, operating and making operatable radioactive waste facilities and for this purpose to establish economic enterprises,

• Carrying out research and development activities related to radioactive waste management; establishing, installing, operating and decommissioning research-oriented laboratories, technology transfer offices, research and development centers,

• Carrying out training activities related to radioactive waste management.

NUKEN Istanbul Campus conducts only research and development activities regarding radioactive waste management.

NUKEN Istanbul Campus is conducting research on nuclear fuel cycle and radiation science. Research and development activities in NUKEN Istanbul focus on nuclear fuel and reactor materials, radiation detection, radioisotope production, environmental radiation measurements, radiation safety, and NUKEN Istanbul campus has a team for carrying out nuclear safety calculations and for conducting research for new reactor designs.

NUKEN’s research reactor facility TR-2 is located in Istanbul campus. This facility was established for carrying out fundamental research and development to improve nuclear technology in the country, research on production techniques of radioisotopes used in medicine and industry and training of personnel to work in the nuclear field.

NUKEN-Ankara Campus carries out R&D activities in the fields of energy, ionizing radiation, particle accelerators and nuclear technology and also coordinates and supports training activities.

There are three main facilities in NUKEN Ankara Campus: the Proton Accelerator Facility, to produce radioisotopes and radiopharmaceuticals used for diagnosis purposes in nuclear medicine, to carry out quality control, to carry out R&D and education activities based on proton accelerator; the Gamma Irradiation Facility, to apply industrial irradiation processes; and the Electron Accelerator Facility, to realize many applications of radiation technology.

The cyclotron type accelerator and related four beamlines at the TENMAK Proton Accelerator Facility (PHT) make it possible to do irradiations with beam energies between 15–30 MeV and beam currents up to 1.2 mA in four target rooms. One of the target rooms is the research and development irradiation vault (Fig. 3). Some radioisotopes and their radiopharmaceuticals are produced by irradiations performed at solid, gas and liquid target systems placed at the end points of the proton beam lines. In addition to radiopharmaceutical production, TENMAK PHT also provides irradiation services for research studies in accelerator related fields for scientists in Türkiye as a result of this R&D infrastructure. The effective use of the R&D beamline is of paramount importance for the development of accelerator related research capabilities in the country.

FIG. 3. The view of proton accelerator and irradiation vaults.

TENMAK closely follows worldwide trends and progress in the field of nuclear reactor technologies and fuel cycles. Within context, previously TAEK but now TENMAK has participated actively in the international cooperative activities related to nuclear energy and technology.

Türkiye is an associate member of CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research. All activities related to CERN in Türkiye are coordinated and sponsored by TENMAK. Türkiye is a founding member of the International Centre for Synchrotron Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), and TENMAK is the representing authority for SESAME. Türkiye’s main objectives are to establish a qualified workforce by actively participating in the experimental programmes of CERN and SESAME and to follow worldwide scientific progress.

3.1.1.1. Establishment of the regulatory body

Türkiye established its first nuclear regulatory body (the Atomic Energy Commission) on 27 August 1956 with Law No. 6821 and pursued this effort to benefit from international experience in the area and become one of the founding members of IAEA in 1957. The Atomic Energy Commission was replaced by the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) in 1982 under Law No. 2690. Regulation of all the activities in the field of peaceful uses of nuclear energy, including issuing regulations, making safety reviews and assessments, granting permissions and licences, conducting inspections, and applying enforcement actions, were among the authorities and responsibilities of TAEK. However, TAEK also had responsibilities as the operator of some facilities requiring regulatory control.

In July 2018, with a referendum amending the constitution, the Turkish governance transformed the country into a presidential republic. Consequentially, all governmental institutions modified to adapt to the new system.

To improve the regulatory system in Türkiye and achieve full compliance with international requirements and expectations in the area, a draft Nuclear Energy Law was prepared by TAEK in coordination with MENR. This draft law has been enacted with Decree- Law No. 702 and with Presidential Decree No. 4.

The decree-law on Organization and Duties of Nuclear Regulatory Authority and Amendments to Various Laws, Decree-Law No. 702, was issued by the Cabinet on 9 July 2018 as one of the transition decree laws. Decree-Law No. 702 is a comprehensive nuclear law regulating nuclear safety, nuclear security, nuclear safeguards, radiation safety, radiation protection, and other related subjects on this topic. Furthermore, it established a new independent nuclear regulatory authority, the NDK. However, Decree-Law No. 702 was annulled with the decision of the Constitutional Court due to procedural reasons. Due to annulment decision, there was need to replace Decree Law No. 702 and Presidential Decree No.4. To replace these laws, Law No. 7381 and Presidential Decree No. 95 were prepared and came into force on 8 March 2022. The content of the Law No. 7381 remains mostly same with the Decree-Law No. 702.

3.1.1.2. Legal foundation and statue of the regulatory body

The duties and responsibilities of NDK were defined under the Presidential Decree No. 95 on Organization and Duties of Nuclear Regulatory Authority. This Presidential Decree also defines the organizational structure of NDK and the duties and responsibilities of its units.

The former nuclear regulatory body, TAEK, was transformed into a research and development organization and also given the responsibility of disposal of all radioactive waste produced in the territory of Türkiye.

NDK is associated with MENR by Presidential Decree No. 95.

3.1.1.3. Mandate, mission, and tasks

The aim and scope of Law No.7381 were defined in Art. 1. This article also defines the general mandate of NDK (the regulatory control of activities regarding utilization of nuclear energy and ionizing radiation) as follows:

Furthermore, Presidential Decree No. 95 defines the activities, topics and areas to be regulated by NDK in the scope of Law No. 7381 as follows:

1. Protection of employees, the public, the environment, and future generations from radiation;

2. Safety, security and safeguards in the activities regarding nuclear energy and ionizing radiation;

3. Site assessment, design, construction, commissioning, operation, decommissioning and closure of nuclear installations, radiation facilities, and radioactive waste facilities;

4. Mining, production, transportation, storage, export, import, trade, possession, transfer, accounting and control, processing, reprocessing, and use of nuclear materials;

5. Production, transportation, storage, export, import, trade, possession, transfer, use, installation, dismantling, manufacture, maintenance, and repair of radiation sources;

6. Possession, transfer, processing, transportation, storage, export, import, trade, and disposal of radioactive wastes;

7. Exports and imports of all kinds of substances, materials, equipment, systems, components, or related technology subject to control within the scope of safeguards;

8. Radiation emergency management;

9. The qualifications and training of the personnel ;

10. Other issues, areas, and activities which are to be determined by the Board.

3.1.1.4. Authorities and responsibilities

The duties and authorities of the NDK are determined by the President of the Republic in Presidential Decree No. 95. The duties and authorities of the NDK are as follows:

1. To determine the strategy, target, and working principles of the Authority.

2. To issue regulatory requirements and decisions in the areas of its duties and authorities.

3. To grant authorizations; to define and modify the technical, legal, administrative and financial scope and conditions of the authorizations; to restrict, suspend, end and revoke the granted authorizations; to determine and change the duration of the authorizations; to review and evaluate the information and documents submitted to the Authority for or after the authorization; to define and modify the conditions of the authorization given as a result of the evaluation.

4. To inspect or investigate the activities or places within the scope of its duties or authorities or have them inspected or investigated before and after the authorization;

5. To determine issues requiring approval with the scope of safety, security and safeguards; to grant approval and to determine conformity criterion if necessary.

6. To request and evaluate all the required information and documents from the applicants and authorized persons, to use the information and documents in compliance with the confidentiality requirements.

7. To request the authorized person to carry out a safety assessment for the activity when deemed necessary;

8. To determine whether the authorized persons have fulfilled their obligations related to the insurance or financial guarantee for nuclear liability and related to the special accounts of radioactive waste and decommissioning.

9. To carry out the tasks and procedures related to the administrative sanctions with scope of the Law No. 7381.

10. To establish and operate the national radiation source recording system, national central dose recording system, and national nuclear material accounting and control system.

11. To conduct the national radiation monitoring activity or to have it conducted.

12. To cooperate with the institutions and organizations of other countries and international organizations, participate in joint activities, or coordinate the activities carried out with these organizations in the scope of its field of responsibility.

13. To inform relevant national or international organizations about extraordinary events.

14. To have research and development activities in the field of safety and security necessary to support its regulatory activities carried out.

15. To exchange information, cooperate, and communicate directly with the public and private institutions and organizations, non-governmental organizations and the public.

16. To determine regulatory activities, decisions, and opinions to be sent to national and international institutions and organizations and to be disclosed to the public.

17. To request all kinds of necessary information and documents related to a subject from all real and legal persons, including public institutions and organizations, and/or to examine them on-site.

18. To cooperate with the AFAD and relevant institutions and organizations in the management of radiation emergencies that may occur as a result of activities not under regulatory control.

3.1.1.5. Organizational structure of the regulatory body

NDK is composed of a Nuclear Regulatory Board and Presidency. The decision-making body of the NDK is the Nuclear Regulatory Board. The Nuclear Regulatory Board consists of five persons, including the President of NDK (who also chairs the Board) and a Second Chairperson. All Board members are assigned by the President of the Republic. The President of the Republic also appoints the President of NDK and the Second Chairperson. On 5 February 2019, the President of NDK and the Board Members were appointed by a Presidential Decree. The Regulation on Working Procedures and Principles of Nuclear Regulatory Board was issued on 11 April 2019.

The Presidency consists of the President of NDK, two vice presidents, and service units. The organizational structure of the Presidency was determined by the Presidential Decree No. 95.

NDK’s main organization consists of six technical and five administrative units. Technical units are the following:

• Department of Nuclear Installations (regulatory activities in nuclear safety);

• Department of Radiation Practices (regulatory activities in radiation practices and radiation facilities);

• Department of Security and Safeguards (regulatory activities in nuclear security and safeguards, and in transportation and import/export of radioactive materials);

• Department of Radiation Protection (regulatory activities in radiation protection, emergency preparedness and response and radioactive waste management);

• Department of Inspection (nuclear and radiation safety inspections);

• Department of External Relations (national and international coordination of all kinds of activities within the scope of duties and responsibilities of NDK).

Administrative units are:

• Department of Legal Services;

• Department of Strategy Development (administrative and financial activities of NDK);

• Department of Support Services (human resources and other supporting services);

• Press and Public Relations Consultancy;

• Directorate of Board Services (conducting secretarial work and operations of the Nuclear Regulatory Board).

Decree-Law No. 702 allows for the transfer of current regulatory personnel employed within TAEK in the departments of Nuclear Safety, Radiation Health and Safety, and Technology to the NDK; however, in accordance with Law No. 7381, NDK’s personnel was kept the same as Decree-Law No. 702. Figure 6 shows the organizational structure of NDK.

FIG. 6. Organizational structure of the Nuclear Regulatory Authority.

In Türkiye, nuclear installations are licensed by NDK in areas relating to nuclear safety, security, safeguards and radiation protection. Before the establishment of NDK as an independent nuclear regulatory body, , TAEK was the Authority, making the authorization, inspection, regulation, assessment and enforcement.

A new regulation will be developed by the NDK to establish the licensing process in accordance with provisions of the new nuclear law. Until this regulation is issued, the Decree on Licensing of Nuclear Installations will be in force.

The Turkish licensing system includes a “3S” (safety, security, and safeguards) approach. During the evaluation of licence application, submitted reports and programmes related to safety, security, and safeguards are reviewed by the regulatory body. The approval of the physical protection programme and the nuclear material accountancy and control system of the NPP is a prerequisite before granting permission to bring nuclear material on-site. The final information regarding emergency management is reviewed before the fuel loading is permitted.

The licensing process includes the review and assessment of a set of documents for each licence application. These documents include:

• Preliminary safety analysis report (PSAR) or final safety analysis report (FSAR);

• Physical protection programme documentation;

• Nuclear material accountancy and control system documentation;

• Emergency plans;

• Management system documents;

• Other documents.

Nuclear power plant licensing activities are carried out by the Nuclear Installations Department. This department’s main responsibilities are licensing of nuclear installations (review and assessment of documentation related to nuclear safety) and coordination of licensing activities between technical departments. All authorizations related to nuclear installations are awarded by the Nuclear Regulatory Board.

The licensing procedure is initiated by the applicant, to be recognized as the ‘owner’. The licensing process for an NPP comprises three main stages in succession: site licence, construction licence, and operating licence. There are several permits functioning as hold points during the licensing process. These include the limited work permit, commissioning permit, fuel loading, and test operations permit for the operating licence. For each authorization, documents required for review and assessment are defined in the Decree on Licensing of Nuclear Installations of 1983. There is no design approval authorization in Türkiye. NDK’s authorization is also required for every modification that may have an impact on the safety of the nuclear installation. The authorization process for the decommissioning stage is not defined in the decree. This issue is addressed under new regulatory legislation.

FIG. 7. Licensing system under Decree on Licensing of Nuclear Facilities

The licensing approach is defined in the Directive on Determination of Licensing Basis Regulations, Guides and Standards, and Reference Plant for Nuclear Power Plants of 2012, which lays out the rules for establishing a licensing basis for NPPs. These rules state that the issues insufficiently addressed by existing Turkish regulations on nuclear safety shall be covered by requiring compliance with the regulations of the vendor or designer country and the IAEA’s Safety Standards, particularly its safety fundamentals and safety requirements. For remaining issues, third party country laws, regulations and standards are referenced. The directive also requires the applicant to submit a reference plant of the proposed design to the regulatory body to facilitate the licensing process. The directive was established in accordance with the principles laid out in the IAEA publication INSAG-26, Licensing the First Nuclear Power Plant.

This directive is being implemented for the Akkuyu project. A list of applicable regulations, guides, and standards was determined by the owner. TAEK approved the list on 2 November 2012. The revised list (Rev. 2) was approved on 14 November 2014. The licensing basis for the Akkuyu NPP is mainly composed of Turkish regulations, IAEA safety fundamentals and requirements, and Russian Federation regulations. The list also contains standards and guides of Türkiye and the Russian Federation. Novovoronezh-II NPP in the Russian Federation was approved as the reference plant for Akkuyu NPP by TAEK.

In addition, according to the Regulation on Environmental Impact Assessment, NPPs should obtain an affirmative decision on an EIA from the MoEU as a prerequisite to the site approval and an electricity production license from the EMRA.