The energy policy of the Russian Federation is contained in an energy strategy document, which sets out policy for the period up to 2035 (https://minenergo.gov.ru/node/8504). In 2000, the Government of the Russian Federation first approved the main provisions of the Russian Federation’s energy strategy to 2020, with the new energy strategy being confirmed by the Government in 2003. The energy strategy outlined several main priorities: an increase in energy efficiency, reduction of impacts on the environment, increased sustainable development, energy development and technological development, as well as improved effectiveness and competitiveness. The energy strategy also specifies that the document should be amended where necessary at least once every five years, and the latest document covers the period through 2035. Under these circumstances, the structural policy for the energy sector over the next 10–15 years includes the following:

• Enhancement of the efficiency of natural gas utilization and increase in its share of domestic consumption, especially in ecologically strained regions;

• In depth processing and comprehensive utilization of hydrocarbon raw materials;

• Enhancement of coal quality, as well as stabilization of coal production volumes;

• Intensification of local and renewable energy resource development (hydropower and wind power, peat, etc.);

• Prioritizing electricity generation development, based on competitive and ecologically clean power plants;

• Safety and reliability enhancement of Generation I NPPs and development of new, advanced NPPs.

The new technological energy policy is oriented towards the following:

• Radical enhancement of both the cost effectiveness and energy efficiency of all stages of the extraction, conversion, distribution and utilization of energy resources;

• Effective decentralization of the energy supply;

• Ecological and accident safety, as well as reliability of energy supply;

• Development of qualitatively new technologies for the stable evolution of the power industry: ecologically clean coal fired power plants, safe NPPs, efficient processes for the utilization of new sources of power, etc.

Regional energy policy takes into account the existing principal differences in energy supply conditions and in the structures of the fuel resources of various parts of the Russian Federation. Regional energy self-governance and self-sufficiency are envisaged as major challenges (i.e. sustaining a unified national energy sector through the development of federal energy systems, involving electricity, gas and oil supply networks) (Energy Strategy of Russia 2035 — https://minenergo.gov.ru/node/1026).

Energy reserves are shown in Table 1. Fossil fuels form the basis for the Russian Federation’s energy sector.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

*Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: metric tonnes; hydro, renewable: TW.

Calculation of EJ equivalent for renewables is expressed for a period of 10 years.

**Solids include both coal and lignite.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; Country Information.

Table 2 provides an overview of historical energy data. The share of nuclear energy in total energy consumption is about 2%, while hydropower remains the most prominent renewable energy resource in the Russian Federation. The share of hydropower in energy consumption is also about 2%.

TABLE 2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION

*Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.

**Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

—: data not available.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; Country Information.

The Russian electric power system consists of both interconnected (unified) and disconnected parts. More than 90% of the generation capacities run synchronously on a vast territory spanning almost 7000 km from east to west. Off-grid electric systems supply customers in the far eastern and northern territories of the country. The transmission network covers ten time zones and helps to meet peak demand in winter. Nuclear sources are useful insofar as they can be used significantly longer than some fossil fuels. Currently, this source of energy is considered the most viable for electricity generation for the next 50 years (https://minenergo.gov.ru/en).

Transmission and distribution

The Unified Energy System (UES) of the Russian Federation consists of 71 regional energy systems, which, in turn, form 7 integrated energy systems: East, Siberia, Urals, Middle Volga, South, Centre and Northwest. All power systems are connected by intersystem high voltage power lines with voltage of 220–500 kV and higher and operate in synchronous mode (in parallel).

Unified Energy System

UES is a unique system which supports economic benefits for both the people and industry of the Russian Federation. The technical basis of UES comprises the following:

• The electric power complex of UES includes 846 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW each. As of 1 January 2020, the total installed capacity of power plants of UES amounted to 246 342.45 MW (www.so-ups.ru/?id=962).

• A total of 3.018 million km of electric power lines.

• A supply regulation system that physically unites all power installations with a single 50 Hz current frequency.

The organizational basis of UES comprises the following:

• Seventy-four power suppliers that supply electric and heat power to consumers throughout the Russian Federation;

• Thirty-four large electric power stations that operate independently on the federal (national) wholesale electric power market;

• Over 300 organizations providing technological backup and development for UES, and which ensure the viability of the industry as a whole.

Electricity exports

Electricity supplies from the Russian Federation abroad amounted to 20.05 billion kW·h in 2019, which is 12.8% more than in 2018, according to the Federal Customs Service (FCS). The Russian Federation’s electricity export for 2020 was reduced by 1.65 times compared to 2019 to 12.12 billion kW·h.

Table 3 shows the historical electricity production data and installed capacities, and Table 4 shows the energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

*Latest available data, please note that compound annual growth rate may not be representative of actual average growth.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

—: data not available.

Source: United Nations Statistical Division, OECD/IEA and IAEA RDS-1

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

*Latest available data.

Source: RDS-1 and RDS-2

—: data not available.

The Russian Federation is optimistic about its nuclear programme, despite a recent decline in demand for electricity, as electricity generation from NPPs increased by 11% over the past six years. The installed capacity of NPPs also increased by 9%. Currently, six new nuclear power reactors are under construction. The Russian Federation is taking part in the construction of new NPPs in China, India and the Islamic Republic of Iran, and others. Agreements on the development of nuclear power production have been signed with Belarus, Finland and Hungary.

Below is a chronological outline of the development of nuclear power in the Russian Federation.

The State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom maintains competencies to oversee and work at all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle and production chain, from uranium mining to decommissioning of nuclear facilities or management of spent nuclear fuel. Rosatom as a whole brings together about 400 enterprises and organizations, including the world’s only nuclear icebreaker fleet. It is the largest electricity generating company in the country, accounting for about 20.7% of the country’s total generation of electricity; the Russian Federation is one of the top five countries in the world for total nuclear power generation.

The State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom consists of divisions formed according to the basic segments of the nuclear fuel cycle:

• Uranium mining;

• Fuel and enrichment;

• Machine building;

• Engineering;

• Power generation;

• Nuclear services and maintenance;

• Back end;

• Research and development (R&D).

In addition, Rosatom offers products and services in the following areas:

• Nuclear medicine;

• Non-nuclear equipment manufacturing;

• Nuclear icebreaker fleet;

• Wind energy;

• Promising materials and technologies;

• New business areas.

Figure 1 shows the structure of the nuclear industry in the Russian Federation.

FIG. 1. Structure of the nuclear industry in the Russian Federation.

Figure 2 shows a map of NPPs in the Russian Federation. Table 5 shows the current status of the Russian Federation’s NPPs. In total, 38 power units with an installed capacity of 30.3 GW are operated at 11 NPPs in the Russian Federation, consisting of the following:

• 21 power units with WWER reactors (of which 3 are WWER-1200 power units, 13 are WWER-1000 power units and 5 are WWER-440 power units of various modifications);

• 13 power units with channel reactors (10 power units with RBMK-1000 reactors and 3 power units with EGP-6 reactors);

• 2 power units with sodium cooled fast reactors (BN-600 and BN-800).

• 2 nuclear reactors, type KLT-40S, with an electric capacity of 35 MW each.

FIG. 2. Map of NPPs in the Russian Federation.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

*Latest available data.

Source: RDS-2

—: data not available.

Nuclear power generation made up about 19% of the country’s total electricity generation in 2019. NPPs are operated by the state enterprise Russian State Concern for Generation of Electric and Thermal Power at Nuclear Power Plants (Rosenergoatom).

Most reactors are being licensed for lifetime extension. Half of the Russian Federation’s nuclear generation in 2015 came from units which had been upgraded for long term operation and were operating beyond their initial design lifetimes (of around 30 years), mostly with 15 year extensions initially. Twenty-four of 34 reactors operating in 2015 had been upgraded with lifetime extensions, adding 3 GW(e) of generating capacity. Of the other ten, five were being upgraded and five were relatively new.

Generally, the Russian Federation’s reactors were originally licensed for 30 years from first power. Late in 2000, plans were announced for lifetime extensions of 12 first generation reactors (Leningrad 1 and 2, Kursk 1 and 2, Kola 1 and 2, Bilibino 1–4 and Novovoronezh 3 and 4), totalling 5.7 GW(e), necessitating major investment in refurbishment. In 2014, a new state programme on licence extension was approved, bringing standards into line with international ones.

Through the end of 2011, 15 year extensions had been achieved for 17 units totalling 9.8 GW(e). Through mid-2016, operational licence extensions had been implemented for 24 units, totalling 16 242 MW(e): Beloyarsk 3, Novovoronezh 3–5, Kola 1–4, Kalinin 1, Balakovo 1, Kursk 1–4, Leningrad 1–4, Smolensk 1 and 2 and Bilibino 1–4. Projects for Balakovo 2–4, Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 will be carried out by 2023.

WWER-440 units have generally received 15 year life extensions. Kola 2 is undergoing safety analysis, with a goal to extend its licence to 60 years, and Kola 1 is also expected to be licensed beyond 45 years after annealing the reactor pressure vessel. The Kola 3 licence extension to 2026 (45 years) was confirmed in February 2016 after upgrading work. Novovoronezh 4 is expected to be licensed to 60 years using cannibalized parts from Unit 3, shut down at the end of 2016.

Most WWER-1000 units are expected to have 30 year licence extensions. In 2015, Balakovo 1 was licensed to 60 years, and intentions for Units 2–4 are similar. Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 are expected to have a 30 year licence extension by 2025.

In 2006, Rosatom said it was considering 15 year lifetime extensions and uprating of all 11 of its operating RBMK reactors; 10 had licence extensions by mid-2016. Following significant design modifications made after the accident at the Chornobyl NPP, as well as extensive refurbishment, including replacement of fuel channels, a 45 year lifetime is seen as realistic for most of the 1000 MW(e) units. In 2011, these units provided 47.5% of the Russian Federation’s nuclear generated electricity.

For older RBMK units, service lifetime performance recovery operations involve correcting deformation of the graphite stack. After dismantling the pressure tubes, longitudinal cutting of a limited number of graphite columns returns the graphite stack geometry to a condition that meets the initial design requirements. The procedure will give each of these older reactors at least three years of extra operation, and the procedure may then be repeated. Leningrad 1 was the first reactor to undergo this procedure in 2012–2013, followed by the Kursk and Smolensk units. In 2017, work was due to start on restoring lifetime performance of the graphite stacks. All three Smolensk units are set for a 45 year operating lifetime.

Most reactors are being uprated. The July 2012 Energy Ministry draft plan envisaged increasing the power of WWER-440 units to 107%, that of RBMKs to 105% and that of WWER-1000 units to 104–110% (revised to 107–110% in 2013).

In May 2015, Rosenergoatom said it had completed uprating all WWER-1000 reactors to 104% of rated power and was starting to raise levels to 107% using the advanced TVS-2M fuel design, starting with Balakovo 4. Earlier, uprating of 5% for WWER-440 reactors (but 7% for Kola 4) had been achieved, and in 2015, Kola 3 went to 107%. Kalinin Units 1–3 are quoted at 1075 MW(e) gross after uprate, and Unit 4 started pilot commercial operation at 104% of rated power in February 2015, with a 40 MW(e) increase.

Rosenergoatom has been investigating further uprates of WWER-1000 units to 107–110% of original capacity, using Balakovo 4 as a pilot plant through 2014. For the V-320 units, pilot commercial operation at 104% power is carried out over three fuel campaigns, with the reactor and other system parameters being monitored and relevant data collected. After this period, a cumulative 104% power operation report is produced for each plant. The regulator Rostechnadzor will then assess safety and possibly license commercial operation at the higher power level.

Rosenergoatom is considering the introduction of a 24 month fuel cycle at new nuclear power units. Previously, WWER-1000 reactors operated for 12 months without refuelling, and from 2008 the reactors were all converted to an 18 month fuel cycle. WWER-440s still use a 12 month cycle. To achieve 24 months in new units, the design of WWERs will need to be changed and fuel enrichment would need to be increased from 4–4.5% U-235 to 6–7% in the WWER-TOI design.

The R&D Institute of Power Engineering was preparing plans for a 5% uprating of the later Leningrad, Kursk and Smolensk RBMK units. For Leningrad 2–4, fuel enriched to an average of 3% instead of 2.4% would allow a 5% increase in power, and Rostechnadzor authorized trials of the new fuel in Unit 2. Following this, it was to consider authorizing a 5% uprate for long term operation. However, in May 2012 Rosenergoatom flagged problems with ageing of the graphite moderator (most acute at Leningrad 1), questioned proceeding with uprates of older units, and said it would consider derating individual units where problems such as pressure tube distortion were apparent owing to graphite swelling. Leningrad 1 would be derated to 80% to prolong its operating life; work to restore its graphite stack and extend its service life was completed late in 2013. Similar work would then be done on all first generation RBMKs, since these are so important economically to Rosenergoatom. However, future RBMK operation might be at a reduced capacity of 80% across all units. The successful repair of Leningrad 1 removed the pressure for accelerated replacement of old RBMK units. In December 2018 Leningrad 1 was shut down, followed by unit 2 in November 2020.

Rosenergoatom received a Rostechnadzor licence to provide work in a mode suitable for decommissioning of power unit No. 1 of the Bilibino NPP. Unit No. 1 of the Bilibino NPP has been placed into permanent shutdown, where spent nuclear fuel has been removed to the storage pool. Power units No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 are in operation and provide a reliable supply of electricity to the consumers of the Chaun-Bilibinsky power centre, and Bilibino consumers — together with heat and hot water. Table 6 shows the status of the decommissioning process for NPPs in the Russian Federation.

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The latest Federal Target Programme envisages a 25–30% nuclear share in electricity supply by 2030, 45–50% by 2050 and 70–80% by the end of the century. The eight units now under construction, to be completed by 2030, are listed in Table 7.

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: WWER-1200 is the reactor portion of the AES-2006 NPP.

The Federal Target Programme is based on WWER technology, at least until roughly 2030. It highlights the goal of moving to fast neutron reactors and a closed fuel cycle, for which Rosatom proposed two options. The first is to select a fast neutron reactor with lead coolant as the basic technology, and to mobilize all available resources for this exclusively. This is expected to cost RUR 110 billion, mostly drawing from the federal budget. The second option also provides for development of fast neutron reactors, cooled by sodium and lead–bismuth, with the related engineering designs of such reactors and closed fuel cycle technologies will be constructed after 2035. A detailed design should be developed for the construction of a multipurpose fast neutron research reactor by then also. This second option is designed to attract more funds aside from the federal budget allocation, and is the option favoured by Rosatom.

In February 2010, the Government announced that Rosenergoatom’s investment programme for 2010 amounted to RUR 163.3 billion, of which RUR 53 billion would come from the federal budget. Of the total cost, RUR 101.7 billion is for nuclear plant construction, almost half of which is to come from Rosenergoatom’s funds. It includes the reactors listed in Table 8 as under construction, as well as Leningrad II-2 and the Baltic plant. In March 2010, Rosatom said that it intended to commission three new reactors per year from 2016.

The Government of the Russian Federation approved a ten year modernization programme for the country’s power plants. The Government approved a plan by the Energy Ministry to upgrade nearly 40 GW of installed capacity, which accounts for around 16% of the Russian Federation’s total installed generation capacity. The project will run through 2031, and the Government plans to have long term predictability in electricity prices to provide businesses with long term predictability of energy costs.

The programme will run between 2022 and 2031. The first competitive selection will be held for 11 GW in April or May, with power supply expected to start in 2022–2024. The key selection criteria for equipment will be the cost per kW?h. The modernization programme will also aim to have as much domestic equipment and engineering as possible.

The power industry in the Russian Federation developed stepwise, by incorporating regional power systems working in parallel and forming interregional electric power pools, which merged to form a single power grid. The nation’s power grid started to evolve as soon as the GOELRO plan for national economic development was launched. The Russian Federation’s power grid, the main component of the national power industry, is a complex network of power plants and mains, which have the same operating mode and centralized dispatching control. The transition to this form of organization of the power industry made it possible to make the most of power resources and to improve the economics and reliability of the energy supply, for the benefit of both the economy and population.

This system spans 7000 km west to east and over 3000 km north to south. Also, in its more than 40 years in operation, the power grid has accumulated a wealth of experience in the reliable and efficient supply of high quality energy to users. Of the total of 74 power networks, the Russian Federation’s power grid comprises 69 power networks. Of the seven integrated power systems (IPSs), six work in parallel as part of the power grid: the Centre, Middle Volga, Urals, Northwest, North Caucasus and Siberia IPSs. The East IPS operates separately from the Siberia IPS. Working in parallel with the Russian Federation’s power grid are the power systems of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine, and, through the insertion of direct current, the power system of Finland.

Placement of NPPs in the Russian Federation is performed in accordance with Resolution No. 823 of the Government of the Russian Federation of 17 October 2009, on schemes for the long term development of electric power.

Basic principles of the schemes and programmes for long term electric power development are the following:

• Efficiency;

• Application of new technological solutions;

• Coordination of schemes and programmes of long term development of electric power related technologies;

• Publicity and openness of public investment strategies and solutions.

Territory near active volcanoes and territory at risk of exposure to tsunamis and catastrophic floods must be deemed unfavourable for the placement of NPPs.

Rosatom’s comprehensive services include public relations solutions that work towards public acceptance of nuclear power, which is viewed as a cornerstone of stability in the nuclear industry. Rosatom adheres to principles of transparency, raising public awareness of the Russian Federation’s nuclear operations. This approach enables it to secure public consensus (according to a survey conducted in 2013 by the Levada Analytical Centre, 71.5% of the country’s population support the continued development of nuclear power). As noted in the Rosatom report, the population supports the development of the nuclear industry, and also notes its high importance for the socioeconomic development of their regions. Thus, 74.4% of the population of the regions where NPPs are located approve of the use of nuclear energy as one of the ways to provide our country with electricity. Among residents of nuclear station towns, this percentage is even higher — 87.13%. In some regions, the growth is significant. For example, in the Kursk region, where new nuclear blocks are being built, residents associate the development of the region with this.

The reprocessing option is the chosen method for dealing with spent reactor fuel with the exception of spent fuel originating from RBMKs, which is disposed of. Rosatom operates the RT-1 plant in Chelyabinsk for reprocessing fuel from WWER plants. Its capacity for WWER-440 fuel is 400 t HM/a. The construction of a second reprocessing plant (RT-2) at Krasnoyarsk which has a first line design capacity of 800 t HM/a has been postponed indefinitely. Reprocessed uranium is used for RBMK fuel production. Plutonium obtained at RT-1 is temporarily stored on site in dioxide form. Rosatom operates several away from reactor wet fuel storage facilities at RT-1 and RT-2 and at several NPPs, with a total capacity of about 16 000 t HM/a (www.sibghk.ru).

Fundamental research

The following major nuclear industry research centres carry out extensive fundamental theoretical and experimental investigations into the properties of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, plasma and laser physics, thermonuclear fusion, development of new types of accelerator and reactor technology, and developing equipment and facilities for physical research:

• Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow;

• Institute of High Energy Physics, Protvino;

• Institute of Innovation and Thermonuclear Research, Troitsk.

Applied R&D

Following are the major scientific centres in the field of nuclear science and technology:

• The Russian Scientific Centre ‘Kurchatov Institute’, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre ‘Institute of Physics and Power Engineering’, Obninsk;

• The State Scientific Centre ‘All-Russian Inorganic Materials Research Institute’, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre Nuclear Reactor Research Institute, Dimitrovgrad;

• Research and Development Institute of Power Engineering, Moscow.

Theoretical and experimental research performed at these institutes on nuclear and particle physics, neutron physics, thermophysics, hydraulics, material science and nuclear safety have received strong recognition.

The All-Russian Research Institute for Nuclear Power Plant Operation of Moscow is the scientific centre for the Russian Federation’s nuclear operating organizations. Its principal work is assuring safe operation of first and second generation NPPs.

Major reactor and nuclear steam supply system design and research

The following are centres of research in the area of reactors and nuclear steam supply systems:

• Experimental Design Bureau ‘Gidropress’, Podolsk;

• Experimental Design Bureau of Machine Building (OKBM), Nizhny Novgorod.

From 2035, it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in the Russian Federation, with a large role for recycled fuels. The fast reactor BN-1200 is being developed by OKBM Afrikantov in Zarechny, partly funded by a federal nuclear technology programme. The BN-1200 will produce 2900 MW(th) (1220 MW(e) gross), has a 60 year design life, simplified refuelling, and burnup of up to 120 GW·d/t. The creation of a two component NPP with WWER and BN reactors operating in a closed nuclear fuel cycle is one of the strategic priorities of the scientific and technical activities of Rosatom. This is seen as the emergence of a new technological paradigm of nuclear power, based on the many year experience in the successful creation and operation of NPPs with WWER reactors.

Rosatom cooperates with other countries in many fields of activities, such as the following:

• Nuclear physics;

• Fundamental research into properties of matter;

• Controlled thermonuclear fusion;

• Physics of semiconductors and high temperature superconductivity;

• Isotopes;

• Technologies of elementary particle accelerators and electrophysical equipment;

• Atomic energy generation and nuclear fuel cycles;

• Radioactive waste management;

• Environmental protection.

Rosatom’s scientists and researchers are engaged in a wide range of studies conducted by the various international centres for nuclear research, including the European Organization for Nuclear Research, the National Accelerator Laboratory and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. The Russian Federation participates in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor quadripartite project. Rosatom scientists and engineers participate actively in both national and international symposia, seminars and conferences. Rosatom is engaged in intensive sharing and exchange of information on a bilateral level and through the International Nuclear Information System. Within Rosatom, there is a special institute (Atominform), merging all information flows of the industry and dealing with the problems associated with protecting Rosatom’s rights to the objects of intellectual property resulting from activities financed by the Ministry, as well as legal aspects of the transfer of these rights to third parties.

Recently, the problems of spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, of NPP safety and of environmental protection have been gaining in importance. The Russian Federation cooperates with the United States Department of Energy through the International Centre of Ecological Safety in the Russian Federation (Rosatom) and in the United States of America (the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory). Cooperation started in 1993, in management of spent nuclear fuel and of radioactive waste and in rehabilitation of contaminated territories in the northwest of the Russian Federation, with France, Norway, Sweden, the United States of America and the European Commission, and these initiatives are still in progress. In 1998, through the Minatom initiative, the Russian Federation began to cooperate with France and Germany to construct a European PWR in the Russian Federation. A joint working group was formed, including experts from Minatom, Framatome and Siemens Company. The European Commission, rendering technical assistance on a gratuitous basis within the framework of the TACIS Programme, is one of the leading Western partners. In 1998, the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the Russian Federation and the European Union was implemented. In recent years, the Russian Federation has taken part in activities in compliance with the agreement on the International Science and Technology Centre.

From 1994 to 1997, R&D activities to fabricate uranium–plutonium fuel for Canada deuterium–uranium (CANDU) reactors from weapons grade plutonium were carried out in cooperation with Canada. At present, the joint Russian–US efforts are focused on decommissioning of weapons grade plutonium production reactors. In 1999, a draft intergovernmental agreement between the Russian Federation and the Netherlands on cooperation in safe dismantling of nuclear weapons in the Russian Federation and in utilization of removed nuclear powered submarines was elaborated.

By convention, the designing, mounting and commissioning of NPPs and large scale production installations in the territories of the CIS and other countries form an essential part of the international cooperation of Rosatom. Ukraine and Kazakhstan are the Russian Federation’s most active partners. A draft agreement on cooperation in the nuclear fuel cycle was elaborated and coordinated recently with Ukraine. Activities to complete construction and to put into operation the Rovno and the Khmelnitsky NPPs are in progress. The Russian Federation supplies nuclear fuel to Ukraine, and transports spent nuclear fuel out of the country. The Russian Federation cooperates with Kazakhstan in production of nuclear fuel and in other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle.

Rosatom cooperates with Bulgaria, China, Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Slovakia and the Syrian Arab Republic in the construction and operation of NPPs and large scale production installations. There is also progress in Russian–Japanese relations in the field.

The Russian Federation takes part in the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). The objective of INPRO is to support the safe, sustainable, economic and proliferation resistant use of nuclear technology to meet the global energy needs of the 21st century. INPRO provides an open international forum for studying the nuclear power option and associated requirements, and its potential application in IAEA Member States. INPRO helps to make adequate competence available for the development and deployment of innovative nuclear energy systems and helps to assist Member States in the coordination of related collaborative projects.

The Russian Federal Supervision of Nuclear and Radiological Safety (Gosatomnadzor) is the nuclear regulatory body of the Russian Federation, with headquarters in Moscow and seven regional offices throughout the country.

The following regulations determine the procedure for NPP licensing:

1. Regulations on the order of special permission, issued by Gosatomnadzor for examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-12-94.

2. Regulations on arranging and carrying out examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-13-94.

3. Regulations on the order of issuing of special temporary permissions for designing nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-14-94.

The stages of obtaining the temporary permission (licence) for NPP unit operation can be represented in brief as follows:

1. Licence demand (submission of application documents);

2. Gosatomnadzor decision on the required control;

3. Analysis of substantiating materials for demand;

4. Inspection of the NPP;

5. Conclusion of examination of substantiating materials;

6. Conclusion of NPP inspection;

7. General conclusion of obtaining temporary permission (licence);

8. Licence (temporary permission).