The overall direction of the energy sector is determined largely by market forces rather than by formal government policy. However, federal policies and regulations do influence specific aspects of energy production and transmission, including, but not limited to, air and water quality, interstate commerce, mine safety, leasing of federal lands, support for research and development (R&D) activities, investment incentives, income taxes, tax incentives, nuclear licensing and nuclear safety oversight.

In addition to the federal role, state agencies formulate policies and issue regulations affecting the energy sector within each state. State involvement is generally related to air and water quality, mine safety and permitting, severance or other taxes, tax incentives, clean energy standards and renewable portfolio standards. States may regulate the electric power sector through public utility commissions and associated integrated resource planning processes and rate setting procedures.

In 2018, estimated recoverable coal reserves were 229 279 million tonnes. Total natural gas proved reserves increased to 14 227 billion m³ and proved crude oil and lease condensate reserves increased to 6 418 million metric tonnes.

Through the end of 2019, US uranium reserve estimates for 70 mines and properties by status, mining method and state are provided in the 2019 Domestic Uranium Production Report. Estimated uranium reserves priced at up to US $220/kg were 149 551 metric tonnes U₃O₈ (see Table 1).

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY RESERVES

Source: EIA.

Statistical data on energy and electricity supply and demand between 1970 and 2019 illustrate long term trends in production and consumption (Table 2). Total energy production and exports increased in recent years, from 2010 to 2019.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS (EJ)

The US electric utility industry is regulated at federal and state levels. Several pieces of legislation were enacted to address national policies, end user needs and environmental protection. Legislation also forms the basis for federal regulation of transmission and wholesale electric power transactions. Section 3.2 contains a list of relevant electricity and nuclear power legislation.

The electricity sector consists of regulated and unregulated markets. Some states have regulated markets in which generation, transmission and distribution of electric power are provided by a single utility. Other states have unbundled generation, transmission and distribution to allow for competitive wholesale and retail power market participation.

The structure of the US electric power sector consists of four main components: generation, transmission, distribution, and end users. The role of each component differs by state and region. Interstate electricity trade does occur; however, no single system or market structure dominates another.

In 2019, total installed nuclear net summer capacity was 98.1 GW, the average price of electricity to end users was US $0.1060/kW·h, and utility-scale power plants generated about 4 118 TW·h of electricity. Most end users receive electricity from centralized power plants that use a variety of fuels to generate electricity. The largest sources of electricity generation were coal, natural gas, and nuclear power.

The electric power sector consists of a variety of participants, including: public, private, and cooperative utilities; independent power producers; three regional synchronized power grids; eight electric reliability councils; and thousands of separate engineering, economic, environmental and land use regulatory authorities. Market participants include the following:

• Investor owned utilities (IOUs): Large private companies financed by a combination of shareholder equity and bondholder debt governed by state regulatory authorities that set rates of recovery for ratepayers. Several IOUs have multifuel generators and multistate operations.

• Publicly owned utilities (POUs): Government or municipally owned utilities that are generally exempt from regulation by state regulatory commissions. POUs have an obligation to consider end user interests when setting rates and service standards.

• Independent power producers (IPPs): Generate electricity from a portfolio of power plants and do not provide local distribution services or retail sales to end users. Although an IPP may sell its power through brokers, it can also sell directly to the utilities and marketers. IPPs generally operate in the unregulated electricity markets.

• Cooperative utilities: Owned by their end users and governed by a board of directors elected from the membership that sets the policies and procedures for the utility. Cooperative utilities are typically established in rural parts of the country where the end user base is small.

• Power marketing agencies: Federal entities that market wholesale power. Some agencies may also own power plants.

• Wholesale power suppliers: Do not own individual plants. These suppliers buy power from multiple suppliers on a long term or spot market basis and then resell it. Brokers may be used to facilitate these transactions.

• Retail power marketers: Buy and sell electricity, but usually do not own or operate generation facilities. Electricity is sold directly to end users, such as households and small to medium sized commercial enterprises.

The power grid consists of three large, interconnected systems that synchronously move electricity around the lower 48 contiguous states: the Eastern Interconnection, the Western Interconnection and the Texas Interconnected System. In general, these systems operate independently, with some limited electrical interconnection points. The Eastern Interconnection is the largest interconnected grid in the USA, connecting 39 states, the District of Columbia and much of Canada, which services 70% of the US population.

Electrical transmission grids are coordinated, controlled and monitored by electrical transmission system operators, which are traditionally non-profit organizations. Transmission line owners are required to supply transmission access to all electricity generators and wholesale energy customers in the service operator’s area under standardized, open access tariff rates.

Electrical transmission system operators may be either independent system operators (ISOs), which can operate within a single state or across multiple states, or regional transmission organizations (RTOs) that cover wider areas crossing state lines. An ISO operates the region’s electricity grid, administers the region’s wholesale electricity markets and provides reliability planning for the region’s bulk electricity system.

RTOs perform the same functions as ISOs, but have greater responsibility for the transmission network, as established by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). RTOs coordinate, control and monitor the operation of the electric power system within their territories. RTOs also monitor the operation of the region’s transmission network by providing fair transmission access. In addition, ISOs/RTOs engage in regional planning to make sure the needs of the system are met with the appropriate infrastructure (see Fig. 1).

Source: EIA, FERC, North American Electric Reliability Corporation.

FIG. 1. Maps of North American electricity grid interconnections and continental US wholesale electricity markets, ISOs and RTOs.

Table 3 contains information on electricity production by source, and Table 4 shows energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 assigned the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) the responsibility to explore the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The responsibilities of the AEC were both regulatory and developmental. Numerous joint industry–government groups were established to explore reactor design concepts, and in 1957, the first large scale civilian nuclear power plant in the USA began operation in Shippingport, Pennsylvania. In 1960, the Dresden Nuclear Generating Station, in Grundy County, Illinois, became the nation’s first full scale, privately financed commercial nuclear power plant.

Congress abolished the AEC in 1974 through the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, in order to assign regulatory and energy development responsibilities to separate agencies. Under the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) were established. The NRC was established to serve as the independent regulatory authority tasked with assuring the safety and licensing of nuclear reactors and other facilities associated with the processing, transport and handling of nuclear materials.

In 1977, the Department of Energy Organization Act was signed; ERDA was abolished, and the DOE was established to consolidate most federal energy activities under one department and thereby provide the framework for a comprehensive and balanced national energy plan.

The nuclear power industry grew dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s in response to strong electricity demand growth. During this period, the USA added 50 GW(e) of nuclear capacity. The capacity of nuclear units grew significantly during the 1970s and 1980s as utilities hoped to capture economies of scale. The nuclear industry ramped up the size of planned nuclear power units rapidly after the first round of commercial reactors.

Watts Bar Unit-2 is the newest commercial nuclear reactor in the US fleet. The 1150 MW(e) reactor was completed in 2016 and is an expansion of the Watts Bar Nuclear Plant in Spring City, Tennessee. The dual unit facility is owned and operated by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). Construction began on the unit in 1973, but was suspended in 1985 as a result of slower electricity demand growth, rising construction costs, and new regulatory requirements stemming from the accident at Three Mile Island in 1979.

Construction on the Virgil C. Summer plant expansion project near Jenkinsville, South Carolina, was cancelled in 2017 as the result of construction delays and cost overruns. The utility, South Carolina Electric & Gas Company, determined that construction would not be completed before 2021 and could have a total cost of US $25 billion, compared to the original budget estimate of US $11.5 billion.

The Alvin W. Vogtle nuclear plant in Waynesboro, Georgia, is continuing with its expansion, which will add two Westinghouse advanced passive (AP1000) pressurized water reactors (PWRs), each with a capacity of approximately 1100 MW(e). Vogtle currently has two operating reactors with a capacity of approximately1150 MW(e) each. Units 1 and 2 both began construction in 1976 and were respectively completed in 1987 and 1989. Westinghouse was originally awarded the construction contract for the construction of Units 3 and 4. However, the company went bankrupt during the course of construction and was replaced by Bechtel.

In 2018, the NRC issued combined licences (COLs) to Florida Power & Light (FPL) for two Westinghouse AP1000 PWRs designated as Turkey Point, Units 6 and 7. Before making the decision to begin construction, FPL will monitor the progress and completion of the ongoing Vogtle expansion project as well as China’s Sanmen project. Turkey Point is located in Homestead, Florida, 25 miles south of Miami, has two operating 800 MW(e) reactors built in the 1970s, and also includes three natural gas fired units.

The NRC is part of the executive branch of the federal Government and is the principal regulator of the nuclear power industry. The NRC is headed by five commissioners, who, along with the executive director for operations, formulate policies, develop regulations governing nuclear reactor and nuclear materials safety, issue orders for licences and adjudicate legal matters (see Fig. 2).

Source: NRC.

FIG. 2. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission organizational chart.

The NRC leads consultations in cooperation with other government entities such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Transportation (DOT), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to regulate nuclear safety standards and norms.

The US nuclear power industry is the largest in the world, with 95 operating commercial nuclear reactors (64 PWRs and 31 boiling water reactors (BWRs)), which have a total capacity of 98 070 MW (Table 5). Most nuclear facilities are located in the central to eastern part of the USA (see Fig. 3). In 2019, nuclear power plants produced 809.4 TW·h of electricity, accounting for 20% of total US electricity generation. The 2019 weighted average unit capability factor for the US nuclear fleet was just above 82% compared with a global average of around 77%.

Source: EIA, Form EIA-860, Annual Electric Generator Report.

Fig. 3. Location of operating US nuclear power plants by capacity, 2019

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: Unit capability factor (UCF) is a form of utilization factor similar to load and capacity factors. BWR — boiling water reactor; Constr. — construction; n.a. — not applicable; PWR — pressurized water reactor.

Licensees in the USA have implemented power uprates as a means to increase the output of reactors. Power uprates are expressed as a percentage of the original licensed capacity of a reactor, and are classified by the NRC in three groups:

• Measurement uncertainty recapture uprates, which include enhanced techniques for calculating reactor power, are typically less than 2%.

• Stretch power uprates are typically less than 7% and do not usually involve major plant modifications.

• Extended power uprates require significant modifications to most plant equipment, might take place over several refueling outages and can be as much as 20%.

US nuclear plants are licensed by the NRC to operate for 40 years, after which plants can extend their operating licences for up to 20 years at a time. Most US nuclear reactors have already renewed their operating licences.

Several plants will be nearing the end of the first 20 year extension by 2029 and will be seeking to renew their licences a second time for another 20 year period. The NRC has so far approved subsequent licence renewal (SLR) applications for Turkey Point Units 3 and 4 and for Peach Bottom Units 2 and 3. SLR applications for Surry Units 1 and 2 are currently under review. By 2021 the NRC expects to receive SLR applications from North Anna Units 1 and 2 and from Oconee Units 1, 2, and 3.

See Section 2.11 for post-Fukushima plant safety upgrades.

The retirement process for nuclear power plants involves disposing of nuclear waste and decontaminating equipment and facilities to reduce residual radioactivity, making the process to be more expensive and time consuming than retiring other types of power plants.

Since 2013, nine commercial nuclear reactors in the USA have shut down, and plans have been announced to retire another eight reactors by 2025. However, the nuclear share of total generation has remained relatively constant over the years despite a decrease in the total number of reactors. This is largely the result of performance improvements and increased operator experience.

As of 2019, 11 commercial nuclear reactors in the USA have been successfully decommissioned, and another 21 reactors are currently in different stages of the decommissioning process (Fig. 4 and Table 6). Licensees can choose from the following three decommissioning strategies:

• DECON (immediate dismantling) begins soon after the nuclear facility closes. Equipment, structures and the portions of the facility that contain radioactive contaminants are removed or decontaminated to a level that permits release of the property and termination of the licence.

• SAFSTOR, often referred to as deferred dismantling, is when a nuclear facility is maintained and monitored in a condition that allows the radioactivity to decay. Once the radioactivity reaches a safe level, the plant is dismantled and the property is decontaminated.

• ENTOMB is when radioactive contaminants are permanently encased on-site in structurally sound material such as concrete. The facility is maintained and monitored until the radioactivity decays to a level permitting restricted release of the property. To date, no NRC licensed facilities have requested this option.

The licensee may also choose to adopt a combination of the first two choices in which some portions of the facility are dismantled or decontaminated while other parts of the facility are left in SAFSTOR. The decision may be based on factors besides radioactive decay, such as availability of waste disposal sites.

Decommissioning must be completed within 60 years of the plant ceasing operations. An extension of that time would be considered only when necessary to protect public health and safety under NRC regulations. The decommissioning process is complete when the NRC determines that the dismantlement has been performed according to the plan submitted by the operator at the beginning of the decommissioning process.

The decommissioning process is paid for through a fund that each plant operator creates during construction with funds typically accumulated during the period of commercial operations. About two thirds of the total estimated cost of decommissioning all US nuclear reactors has been collected. The remainder will be collected as newer plants continue to operate and generate revenues. The utility must report to the NRC every two years on the status of funding until the plant is within five years of permanent shutdown, at which time reporting becomes annual.

One of the most recently decommissioned reactors is the 619 MW(e) Connecticut Yankee facility in central Connecticut, which was shut down in 1996 and decommissioned using the DECON method. The decommissioning was completed in 2007 at a total cost of US $893 million.

Source: EIA, Form EIA-860, Annual Electric Generator Report.

Fig. 4. Location of retired US nuclear power plants by decommissioning status, 2019

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Source: NRC, EIA.

Notes: An independent spent fuel storage installation (ISFSI) is a standalone facility within the plant boundary. In situ disposal is the permanent entombment of a facility that contains residual radiological and/or chemical contamination. Estimated licence termination dates are suffixed with an ‘e’ (example 2070-e). Decom. — decommissioning.

The DOE Office of Nuclear Energy (DOE NE) leads US efforts to advance nuclear power as a resource capable of meeting the nation’s energy, environmental, and national security needs by resolving technical, cost, safety, proliferation resistance and security barriers through research, development and demonstration, as appropriate. To achieve its mission, the DOE NE is pursuing four objectives in its Nuclear Energy Research and Development Roadmap:

• The Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program is developing the scientific basis to extend existing nuclear power plant operating life beyond the current 60 year licensing period (i.e. the initial 40 year licence and a first licence renewal of 20 years) and to ensure the long term reliability, productivity, safety and security of operating plants.

• The Next Generation Nuclear Plant, Advanced Reactor Concepts and Advanced Small Modular Reactor (SMR) programmes promote safety, technical, economic, and environmental advancements and next generation nuclear energy technologies. In addition, the SMR Licensing Technical Support Program supports certification and licensing requirements for US based SMR projects through cooperative agreements with industry partners and by supporting the resolution of generic SMR issues.

• The Office of Fuel Cycle Technologies develops sustainable fuel cycle technologies and options to improve resource utilization and energy generation and to enhance safety and limit proliferation risk.

• All of the DOE NE’s R&D programmes are designed to develop more proliferation resistant technologies and the Nuclear Energy Enabling Technologies Program develops new tools and approaches for understanding nuclear power while limiting and managing the risks of proliferation and physical security.

Congress granted the DOE authority to issue US $20.5 billion in nuclear power loan guarantees. The DOE issued solicitations for US $18.5 billion in loan guarantees for new nuclear power facilities and US $2 billion for the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle on 30 June 2008. In February 2014, the DOE finalized the first federal loan guarantee for US $6.5 billion with Georgia Power Company and Oglethorpe Power Corporation for the construction and operation of two reactors at Vogtle. In March 2018, the DOE announced up to US $3.7 billion in additional guarantees of loans to finance the continued construction of Vogtle Units 3 and 4 (see Table 7).

In early 2018, the deadline for the nuclear production tax credit for advanced nuclear power plants was extended under a budget bill passed by the US Senate and House of Representatives. Section 40501 of the new law allows reactors entering service after 31 December 2020 to qualify for the tax credits (there is no established sunset provision for the credits at this time), and enables the US Secretary of Energy to allocate credits for up to 6000 MW(e) of new nuclear capacity which enters service after 1 January 2021. The extension means that the two Vogtle units under construction will be eligible for the tax credits. Other projects, such the NuScale Power SMR plant planned to be built at the Idaho National Laboratory by 2026, will also now qualify.

TABLE 7. PLANNED AND UNDER CONSTRUCTION NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Source: NRC.

Project management in the construction and operations of nuclear power plants is the responsibility of the owners and operators of nuclear power plants. The Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) is an industry organization that undertakes the following activities, among other mission objectives, at the request of individual nuclear power plant owners or operators:

• Conducting plant evaluations;

• Supporting training and accreditation for nuclear power professionals;

• Assisting in the analysis of significant events at nuclear power plants;

• Communicating lessons learned;

• Providing assistance with technical and management issues.

Nuclear utilities and, in some cases, public utility commissions are responsible for project financing decisions. Funding is secured from banks and through shareholder equity. The federal Government, through the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT2005), provides incentives for the construction of new nuclear power plants, including tax credits, loan guarantees and standby support insurance related to regulatory delays. Section 2.3.1 provides further details on project funding options.

At the beginning of the 20th century, more than 4000 individual electric utilities operated in isolation from each other. As the demand for electricity grew, especially after World War II, utilities began to connect their transmission systems. These connections allowed utilities to share the economic benefits of building large and often jointly owned electric generating units to serve their combined electricity demand at the lowest possible cost. Interconnection also reduced the amount of extra generating capacity that each utility had to hold to ensure reliable service during times of peak demand. Over time, three large, interconnected systems evolved in the United States (see Section 1.2.2).

Transmission is a prominent federal issue because of a perceived need to improve reliability and reduce costs, transmission’s role in meeting national energy goals (such as increased use of renewable electricity), and the potential efficiency advantages of ‘Smart Grid’ modernization.

One aspect of the Smart Grid is the automation necessary to allow two way communication between the utility and its customers. Numerous agencies and organizations are involved in efforts to modernize the transmission grid. The DOE sponsors R&D related to numerous technologies, including the Smart Grid.

Currently, three potential sites for nuclear expansion are under consideration. The utilities are waiting on the outcome of the Vogtle project, clarity on the outlook for natural gas supply, and electricity demand before setting construction start dates and making firm plans (see Table 8).

TABLE 8. POTENTIAL NUCLEAR CAPACITY EXPANSION

Sources: Fermi Unit 3, South Texas Project Units 3 and 4, Turkey Point Units 6 and 7.

Note: ABWR — advanced boiling water reactor; AP1000 — advanced passive 1000 reactor; COL — combined licence; OL — operating licence. ESBWR is interpreted as economic simplified boiling reactor for the US version, and the US-APWR, US advanced pressurized water reactor.

Civic activism is encouraged in the USA, and nuclear power stakeholders have numerous mechanisms for expressing their support for, or opposition to, nuclear power. Stakeholders express their opinions to federal, state and local governments; they are encouraged to participate in regulatory proceedings through formal meetings and by providing comments on proposed rulemaking. Civil reactions to nuclear projects range from optimism about clean electricity generation and increased local employment to concerns over construction times, rate increases and water safety.

Nuclear R&D is conducted by private industry, the federal Government and US universities. Private companies are actively investigating reactor technology, enrichment technology and nuclear fuel design. One of the main institutions for private research funding is the Electric Power Research Institute, which, through membership fees, conducts R&D in many nuclear related areas as well as other areas of the electric power industry.

The federal Government supports R&D through budget allocations for the NRC and for the DOE NE. Private companies, under contract with the DOE, operate a series of national laboratories. The DOE oversees 26 laboratories and institutes, many of which are involved with nuclear technologies.

The DOE NE’s programme and priority activities are guided by the Nuclear Energy Research and Development Roadmap, which was issued in April 2010. Since the Fukushima Daiichi accident, however, the DOE NE has engaged in a number of new research activities to address specific safety related issues, such as the development of accident tolerant fuel forms and accident tolerant instruments. Likewise, to support these activities, the DOE NE is also using advanced high performance computing for modelling and simulation.

The DOE NE supports R&D to improve safety and reliability to help extend the life of current reactors and to develop improvements in the safety, affordability, and proliferation resistance of new reactors.

In the area of nuclear reactor technologies, the DOE NE’s Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program focuses on developing the scientific basis to extend nuclear power plant operating life beyond the current 60 year licensing period while ensuring long term reliability, safety, and security.

In addition, the DOE NE is supporting the commercialization of US based SMR technologies through its SMR Licensing Technical Support Program. The programme promotes the accelerated deployment of SMRs by supporting certification and licensing requirements through cooperative agreements with industry partners and by supporting the resolution of generic SMR issues. There are currently two SMR projects under development. In 2017, the DOE NE granted a permit to support an SMR project at the Idaho National Laboratory site. Also, TVA is planning an SMR demonstration project at its Clinch River site, for which the NRC has approved an early site permit.

Finally, the DOE NE is supporting the development of advanced reactor technologies, focusing on high temperature, natural gas cooled reactors through its Next Generation Nuclear Plant programme, advanced SMRs and advanced reactor concepts. This focus is expected to address long term technical barriers for the development of advanced nuclear fission energy systems that use coolants such as liquid metal, fluoride salt, or natural gas.

The DOE NE’s Office of Fuel Cycle Technologies (FCT) develops sustainable fuel cycle technologies and options and develops UNF management strategies and technologies to support meeting Federal Government responsibility to manage and dispose of US commercial UNF and high level waste (HLW).

• Within the FCT programme, the Fuel Cycle Research and Development programme conducts R&D to help develop sustainable fuel cycles to improve uranium resource utilization, maximize energy generation, minimize waste generation, improve safety and limit proliferation risk.

• The Nuclear Fuels Storage and Transportation Planning Project is responsible for developing and starting an integrated management plan to: implement interim storage, improve the overall integration of storage as a planned part of the waste management system and prepare for the large scale transport of UNF and HLW, with an initial focus on removing UNF from the shutdown reactor sites.

• The Office of Uranium Management and Policy works to assure domestic supplies of fuel for nuclear power plants. In addition, the Office of Used Nuclear Fuel Disposition Research and Development conducts R&D related to the storage, transport, and disposal of UNF and HLW.

• The Systems Engineering and Integration Program develops and implements analysis processes and tools and performs integrated fuel cycle technical assessments to provide information that can be used to objectively and transparently inform and integrate FCT activities.

The Government collaborates with international partners to support the safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear energy. The DOE NE works both bilaterally and multilaterally to accomplish this work.

Bilaterally, the DOE NE collaborates in civil nuclear R&D and related issues through several vehicles, including the International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative, negotiated R&D agreements, memoranda of understanding, technical action plans, working groups, and the International Nuclear Cooperation framework.

Multilaterally, the USA cooperates with international partners through the Generation IV International Forum, the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the IAEA, and the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation.

The Office of International Energy Policy and Cooperation (INEPC) oversees and manages the DOE’s international commercial nuclear fuel management initiatives and supports DOE and government initiatives that foster increased US exports of nuclear fuel and services, as appropriate. INEPC encourages international cooperation between governments and industry to provide commercially attractive fuel service options, including a comprehensive nuclear fuel services approach.

The NRC has close working relationships with 35 countries and conducts confirmatory regulatory research in partnership with nuclear safety agencies and institutes in more than 20 countries. Research includes, but is not limited to, the following projects and programmes:

• The International Nuclear Regulators Association;

• The Cooperative Severe Accident Research Program;

• The Code Applications and Maintenance Program;

• The Steam Generator Tube Integrity Program;

• The Radiological Computer Code Analysis and Maintenance Program.

The NRC’s mission is to regulate the nation’s civilian use of by-product, source and special nuclear materials to ensure adequate protection of public health and safety, to promote the common defence and security, and to protect the environment. The NRC has regulatory responsibility for the following:

• Commercial reactors used to generate electric power and non-power reactors for research, testing and training;

• Uranium enrichment facilities and nuclear fuel fabrication facilities;

• Uses of nuclear materials in medical, industrial and academic settings, and facilities that produce nuclear fuel;

• Transport, storage and disposal of nuclear materials and waste, as well as decommissioning of nuclear facilities.

The DOE serves a secondary, but highly significant, role in administering support to the nuclear power industry. The DOE NE serves to promote civil nuclear technology through research, development and demonstration. The National Nuclear Security Administration maintains and enhances nuclear safety and security and responds to nuclear and radiological emergencies in the USA and abroad. EIA provides statistical data and analysis for nuclear and uranium.

The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) is a non-profit regulatory authority that addresses the reliability of the US electrical system. The NERC develops and enforces reliability standards; annually assesses seasonal and long term reliability; monitors the bulk power system through system awareness; and educates, trains and certifies industry personnel.

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 specified the new nuclear power plant licensing process (Fig. 6). Under the new licensing procedure, an applicant who seeks to build a new reactor can use off-the-shelf reactor designs that have been previously approved and certified by the NRC. After reviewing the application and holding public hearings, the NRC may issue a licence.

Under the current licensing process, the NRC may issue a combined construction and operating licence (COL). In the past, separate construction permits and operating licences were issued. When the applicant uses an NRC certified design, safety issues related to the design have already been resolved, and the focus of the licensing review is the quality of reactor construction.

A COL is valid for 40 years and may be extended for additional periods of 20 years at a time. By stabilizing the licensing process, the NRC’s objective was to shorten construction lead times and improve the economics of new nuclear power plant licensing and construction.

Before authorizing power operation at a reactor, certain standards identified in the COL must be satisfied. These standards are called inspections, tests, analyses and acceptance criteria (ITAAC). Most of the ITAAC are from the reactor design certification; the remaining ITAAC are site specific and are included in the COL or early site permit (ESP) application.

3.1.2.1. Early site permit applications

3.1.2.2. Design certifications for new reactors