The objectives of the Finnish energy policy are to ensure the security of supply of energy sources; effective energy markets and economy; environmental acceptability and safety. In Finland, supply decisions for energy systems take place at a fairly decentralized level — with the exception of nuclear power.

In November 2016, the Government’s report on climate and energy strategy was issued. The National Energy and Climate Strategy outlines actions that will enable Finland to attain the targets specified in the Government programme and adopted in the European Union for 2030, and to systematically set the course for achieving at least an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

According to the trend outlined in the strategy, the share of indigenous energy, and that of renewable energy, in particular, will increase markedly over current levels. Furthermore, the use of coal in energy production will be prohibited by law in 2029. The share of transport biofuels will be increased to 30%, and an obligation to blend 10% bioliquids into light fuel oil used in machinery and heating will be introduced. The minimum aim is to have 250 000 electric and 50 000 gas powered vehicles on the roads.

The electricity market will be developed at the regional and the European level. The flexibility of electricity demand and supply and, in general, system level energy efficiency will be improved.

It is anticipated that the share of renewable energy in end consumption will increase to about 50% and self-sufficiency in energy to about 55%. The share of renewable energy use in transport is expected to exceed the Government programme target and the domestic use of imported oil will be halved, as planned. The greatest non-emissions trading system (ETS) sector reductions in emissions will be achieved in the transport sector, and this will be the foundation of the medium term climate policy plan of 2017 [1].

At present, Finland is highly dependent on foreign energy supplies. Crude oil and oil products constitute a major part of its imported energy. Other main fuels imported to Finland are coal and natural gas. Finland imports all of its oil, natural gas, coal and uranium. The primary indigenous energy resources in Finland are hydropower, wood, wood waste, pulping liqueurs and peat.

Table 1 shows estimated domestic energy sources with certain restrictions. Most presented figures are rough estimates based on eligible energy production in 2020. Fossil fuels here include only peat, as it is the only domestic fossil fuel source available in Finland. Finnish peat resources are abundant, but according to the 2013 Energy and Climate Strategy, peat production in 2020 is projected to be significantly lower when compared with the existing potential. An increase in use of wood chips (total production in 2020 was 25 TWh) in combined heat and power (CHP) applications and in district heat production will partly offset future peat and other fossil fuel consumption. Wind power capacity is based on 2020 estimates, predicting 2500 MW installed capacity and yearly production of 0.02 exajoules (EJ) (6 TWh), while wood based fuels take a fair share amounting 0.35 EJ per year (98 TWh). Hydropower capacity includes only power and efficiency upgrades of the present capacity; power potential in this area is somewhat larger but only a part of this potential capacity can be harnessed for energy production purposes. The National Energy Strategy 2020 baseline scenario figure for hydropower production is 0.05 EJ per year (14 TWh), while upgrading capacity is estimated to yield around 260 MW. Uranium resources are 15 800 tonnes (estimated recoverable resources) and include only the Terrafame nickel/zinc mine. Uranium by-production and estimated uranium production of the Terrafame mine could be up to 250 tonnes per annum.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

* Solid: million tonnes; uranium: metric tonnes; hydro, renewables: GW.

Renewables (for a period of 10 years).

n.a.: Data not applicable.

Source: Ministry of Employment and the Economy — Energy and Climate Strategy 2013 Report,

http://tem.fi/documents/1410877/2626968/Kansallinen+energia-+ja+ilmastostrategian+taustaraportti.pdf/51445cd7-2e89-44dc-a0d3-45cbd6ffa8da/Kansallinen+energia-+ja+ilmastostrategian+taustaraportti.pdf.pdf

Finland’s energy mix is diverse and balanced, and many of its power plants can be optimized for up to three different fuels. About 2.7 million inhabitants (slightly less than half of the population of Finland) lived in district heated apartments and about 68% of all district heat in 2017 was produced in CHP plants. In total, CHP covered about 32% of Finland’s electricity demand in 2017 [2, 3].

Total demand for primary energy in 2017 was 32.3 Mtoe (1352 EJ), and the different energy sources are given in Table 2.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

* Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import(Export) of secondary energy.

** Electricity net import.

+ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 1971 statistics.

Sources: Statistics Finland, http://pxhopea2.stat.fi/sahkoiset_julkaisut/energia2017/html/engl0000.htm

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development energy production statistics

Electricity production is focused on access to sufficient and moderately priced electricity with security of supply, all while simultaneously supporting other climate and energy policy goals. In the future, electricity sourcing will continue to be based on a versatile system based on several energy sources, diversified thanks to cogeneration of power and heat. Domestic production capacity will provide supply for peak consumption and possible import disturbances.

In constructing its own capacity, Finland will give priority to plants that do not emit greenhouse gases, such as CHP plants using renewable sources, including financially profitable and environmentally acceptable hydro and wind power plants. Furthermore, preparations have been performed for constructing additional nuclear power.

The Finnish power system is part of the Nordic power system, connected to the systems in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Moreover, there is a direct current connection from the Russian Federation to Finland, enabling connection between the systems, which also enables power trading across borders. In addition, there is a direct current connection to Sweden under the Gulf of Bothnia, with a link to Estonia. Furthermore, an 800 MW/500 kV direct current electricity transmission connection between Finland and Sweden (Fenno–Skan 2) began commercial operation in 2011.

Regional and distribution network activities are the responsibility of the electric utilities, which are licensed to operate their networks by the pertinent authority, Fingrid. Electricity transmission is priced using a so-called point tariff system (postage stamp), whereby the user can procure electricity from anywhere in the country without restriction. The user pays one grid transmission fee at a respective grid connection point, which covers the transmission costs for the use of the entire grid. The producer can feed power into the network using the same payment principle. Meanwhile, grid operators are responsible for operating, maintaining and developing networks. The transmission of electricity over the national grid as well as the boundary interconnections with Norway, Sweden and the Russian Federation are managed by the responsible grid company, Fingrid Plc., which is owned by the two major producers (Fortum and PVO), the Finnish government and institutional investors.

The Finnish power system is widely decentralized and diversely organized. The main types of ownership are: (i) partly privatized, State controlled power companies; (ii) industrial companies; and (iii) municipal and other distribution companies. There are about 400 power plants in Finland and about half of these are hydroelectric. Fortum Power and Heat Oy (FPH) is the largest power producer in Finland. The remaining power is produced by local and regional energy companies. In addition, Finland imports electricity from the Russian Federation, Nordic electricity markets and Estonia to satisfy its remaining energy requirements.

Industrial and domestic consumers are free to use the power supplier they prefer. The power industry is covered by the same laws as other commercial activities. Companies are fully responsible for respective economic operations. The main ways government influences energy decisions are through taxes and minor subsidies. Anyone has the right to construct a power station or a transmission line. Obtaining a licence for construction of power plants is needed only for the construction of nuclear and hydropower plants. New power plant projects (nuclear facilities and thermal power plants (>300 MW(th))) and high voltage transmission lines (=220 kV)) need to undergo environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures.

The Nuclear Energy Act outlines the procedures required for new nuclear power plants (NPPs), irrespective of private or State ownership. The decision making process for building nuclear facilities is rather complex and requires (besides the normal EIA necessary for major power plant projects) ultimately also the approval of the Decision in Principle (DIP) by the Finnish Parliament. The same is true for other nuclear facilities related to the fuel cycle, such as waste management facilities.

Fortum

Fortum is a leading energy company in the Nordic countries and other parts of the Baltic Rim. Fortum’s activities cover the generation, distribution and sale of electricity and heat, the operation and maintenance of power plants as well as energy related services. FPH is engaged in nuclear energy activities. In addition to the Loviisa NPP, Fortum owns minority shares in the Olkiluoto NPP and the Swedish Forsmark and Oskarshamn NPPs. Fortum Corporation was listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange in December 1998. The State presently owns around 51% of its shares. In 2017, the sales of the Fortum Group amounted to about €4520 million, and power generation totalled 73 TWh, of which the share of nuclear power was 31%. At the end of 2017, the company employed around 9000 people, of which the share of staff in Finland was about 2000 persons [4].

Teollisuuden Voima Oyj

Teollisuuden Voima Oyj (TVO) was founded in 1969 by Finnish industrial companies for the purpose of building and operating large power plants. TVO produces electricity at the Olkiluoto NPP in Eurajoki and at the Meri-Pori coal fired power plant. TVO’s principal task is to secure economical, safe and environmentally friendly electricity generation for its shareholders at Olkiluoto’s current plant units. The power produced by TVO is delivered to the shareholders on a production cost basis (sometimes referred to as the Mankala principle).

Fennovoima

Established in 2007, Fennovoima Oy is a new Finnish nuclear power company that aims to construct a new 1400 MW NPP in Finland to cost effectively produce power for its 60 Finnish shareholding companies. The operation of the plant is scheduled to begin by mid-2020. Fennovoima will produce electricity for its owners’ needs on a production cost basis (Mankala principle). Each owner will receive the share of capacity proportional to its ownership in the company. Owners of Fennovoima include enterprises in industry, trade and services, as well as regional and local energy companies.

Fennovoima conducted an EIA for three sites and the DIP, including two site alternatives at Simo and Pyhäjoki in northern Finland. The EIA was made by the Government in early May 2010 and ratified by the Parliament at the beginning of July 2010. Later, Fennovoima chose the greenfield site Pyhäjoki for the location of its new plant. In summer 2015, Fennovoima filed an application for a licence to construct a 1200 MW(e) WWER type NPP at the Pyhäjoki site. The supplier of the Hanhikivi 1 plant is Rosatom [5].

Posiva

Posiva Oy is responsible for the characterization and construction of the site for the final disposal of spent fuel and, at a later date, the operation of the final disposal facility. In addition, Posiva’s line of business includes other expert services in the field of nuclear waste management. Posiva is owned by Teollisuuden Voima Oyj and FPH.

The main sources of power production in Finland are thermal, nuclear and hydropower plants. In 2017, the shares of these sources in the domestic power production were 36.9%, 33.2% and 22.5%, respectively. To date, only a small volume (about 7.4%) of the total electricity consumption is produced by wind power, although the relative increase of wind power capacity is expanding rapidly. Finland’s electricity generation capacity (peak load) totalled about 15 150 MW at the beginning of 2016. In addition, electricity is imported from the Russian Federation, the Nordic electricity market and Estonia. Table 3 shows information on installed capacity, production and consumption, and Table 4 shows energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. INSTALLED CAPACITY, ELECTRICTY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

¹ Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

n.a.: Data not applicable.

Source: Statistics Finland, http://pxhopea2.stat.fi/sahkoiset_julkaisut/energia2017/html/suom0002.htm

In Finland, nuclear power production is running constantly as a baseload energy source and load factors are kept on a high level through well planned maintenance.

A high proportion of energy intensive process industries and high requirements for space heating and long transportation distances make the total energy consumption per capita in Finland one of the highest in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) area. In 2018, the primary energy consumption per capita in Finland was 250 GJ and electricity consumption per capita 15 841 kWh. Nevertheless, the ratio of external dependency on electricity fluctuates on a yearly basis according to the whole Nordic electricity market situation and is influenced by many factors, such as the emissions trading scheme.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

¹ Electricity net import/Total energy consumption.

Sources: Statistics Finland, http://pxweb2.stat.fi/database/StatFin/ene/ehk/ehk_en.asp

OECD statistics,

http://www.oecd-library.org/docserver/download/6112101e.pdf?expires=1371637725&id=id&accname=oid020285&checksum=FBD9EE14F83F806FB5D9B1D3B80EAFDB

The Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) has operated a research reactor since 1962. The Loviisa power plant units are located on the southern coast and are owned by FPH; the plants were ordered in 1969 and 1971 and started commercial operation in 1979 and 1981. The Olkiluoto power plant units, on the western coast, owned by TVO) were ordered in 1972 and 1974 and started commercial operation in 1979 and 1982. The Loviisa power plant has two Russian WWER pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and the Olkiluoto power plant has two Swedish boiling water reactors (BWRs). At the start of operation, the nominal net capacity of the Loviisa units was 420 MW(e) each and the initial net rating of the Olkiluoto units was 660 MW(e) each. The power level (net) of the Olkiluoto units was raised to 710 MW(e) in 1984. In connection with the latest operating licence renewal process and plant modernization projects (cf. Section 2.2.2), the authorities approved in 1998 the uprating of the power production capacities (net) of the Loviisa and Olkiluoto plants up to 2 ( 488 MW(e) and 2 ( 840 MW(e). Thereafter, the capacity of the reactor units at Olkiluoto was raised further through various modernization projects. Currently, the net capacity of Olkiluoto 1 is 880 MW(e) and Olkiluoto 2 is 890 MW(e).

The Olkiluoto 1 and 2 units were ordered on turnkey contracts from ASEA-Atom (now Westinghouse Electric Sweden Ab). TVO was responsible for the second unit’s civil engineering systems. In 1993, the containment buildings were retrofitted with a Siemens filtered venting system.

The ongoing Olkiluoto 3 nuclear power plant project was ordered as a turnkey delivery from a consortium formed by AREVA GmbH, AREVA NP SAS and Siemens AG. Olkiluoto 3 is a European pressurized water reactor (EPR) plant unit; its net electrical output is approximately 1600 MW. The project has suffered from several delays. The commercial electricity production of the plant unit was originally supposed to start at the end of April 2009. According to the latest schedule, commercial production at the plant unit will begin in 2020. On 7 March 2019 the government granted TVO the operating licence for the Olkiluoto 3 power plant unit. The licence will remain in effect until the end of 2038 [6].

An organizational chart is introduced in Section 3.1.2.

In 2018, 32.45% of the total electricity supply in Finland was produced by nuclear power. Finland’s four operating NPP units had a total net capacity of 2784 MW(e) at the beginning of 2019.

NPP units have operated reliably and complied with existing safety and environmental protection standards. For years, the annual load factor of all units has been around 90%. Table 5 shows the status and performance of the NPPs.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Major modernization, power uprating actions and safety improvements were carried out in connection with nearly all licence renewal processes. Several technical modifications at the plants and thorough updating of the final safety analysis reports were necessary as well. The capacity of NPPs in 1997–1998 was upgraded to a total of 350 MW(e). Thereafter, the Olkiluoto plant units have upgraded their capacity by renewing their turbine systems.

In April 1998, the Government granted a licence to uprate the power levels of the Loviisa 1 and 2 plant units. The licence was valid through 2007, and also covered its repository for low and medium level nuclear waste and interim storage for spent fuel, including the necessary expansion of these facilities. The licence for the operational waste repository is valid until the end of 2055.

The operating licences of the Loviisa 1 and 2 reactor units were expected to expire at the end of 2007. Yet, the operating licence application was submitted to the authorities for a regulatory review in the autumn of 2006 and, in July 2007, the Government granted the operating licences for Loviisa 1 and 2 through 2027 and 2030, respectively.

In the late 1990s, the operating licence application for Olkiluoto NPP was submitted for 115.7% uprated reactor power. The Government granted the licence to the Olkiluoto 1 and 2 units in August 1998 at the uprated power level. Thereafter, the capacity of the reactor units at Olkiluoto was raised to 860 MW(e) each during 2005–2006, through modernization of the high pressure turbines.

TVO also replaced the low pressure turbines of Unit 1 in 2010, raising the output of the reactor unit to 880 MW. During the 2011 maintenance outage, the capacity of Unit 2 was also raised to 880 MW. After the most recent updates, the capacity of Unit 2 was raised to 890 MW.

In January 2017, TVO filed an application for operating the Olkiluoto 1 and 2 NPPs for an additional 20 years, and the government granted the operating licence in September 2018. The licence will remain in effect until the end of 2038. However, this requires a comprehensive periodic safety review to be conducted in 2028. With this operating licence the Olkiluoto 1 and 2 units are operated beyond their original designed lifetime.

Permanent shutdown and decommissioning process

In 2012, the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland decided to decommission the research reactor (Table 6). As part of the decommissioning process, an EIA was conducted in 2013–2015. VTT shut down the reactor in the summer of 2015.

On 20 June, the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland submitted to the Government a licence application for decommissioning of the FIR 1 research reactor. Before the licence application was made in 2017, VTT conducted an EIA during 2013–2015 [7, 12].

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

According to the Nuclear Energy Act, the Government must consider whether the use of nuclear energy is in line with “the overall good of society”. In 2010, the two new DIPs for Olkiluoto 4 and Hanhikivi 1 were based on the projected national energy needs in 2020 and the 2008 strategy. In 2016, the renewed Energy and Climate Strategy maintained that a significant part of Finland’s increasingly carbon neutral energy production will continue to rely on nuclear power (Table 7).

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Source: Fennovoima, http://www.fennovoima.fi/en/hanhikivi-1

The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment (MEAE) has supreme command and control of nuclear energy matters. MEAE prepares licence decisions, drafts proposals to improve legislation and steers the planning and implementation of nuclear waste management [7].

STUK is a supervising authority whose tasks include processing licence applications, supervising compliance with the terms and conditions of the licence and carrying out inspections at the plants. STUK also issues detailed regulatory guides on nuclear safety and supervises compliance with them. STUK also defines the competence criteria for people responsible for nuclear safety.

Many other central government organizations (Ministry of the Environment and Ministry for Foreign Affairs) and regional authorities (regional State administrative agencies and centres for economic development, transport and the environment) as well as the municipalities where nuclear facilities are located also participate in the supervision of nuclear power plants, as required by Finnish nuclear energy legislation and other regulations [8].

The management and the organization of an NPP construction project is under the responsibility of the public or private entity that has been granted the construction licence. The organization and the management system have to fulfil the requirements set in the legislation and guidelines given by STUK.

Projects are funded by international and private financing. Financing is arranged by the public or private entities constructing the NPP.

Transmission system operator Fingrid and nuclear power company TVO began preparations to connect the Olkiluoto 3 reactor unit to the national grid. Yet, the connection requires special arrangements, as Olkiluoto 3 will be considerably larger than previous electricity production units when completed, with a rated net capacity of 1600 MW. Finland’s power system can withstand the failure of a power plant of 1300 MW. Fingrid and TVO made a preliminary agreement during the planning of the Olkiluoto 3 reactor unit concerning the so-called system protection, whereby the reactor unit could be connected to the electricity system. In technical terms, the arrangement means that when Olkiluoto 3 is disconnected from the grid, industrial consumption will be restricted in close to real time such that the disturbance in the electricity system would remain within the allowed 1300 MW limit.

Preparations for the electric grid are also being considered for connecting the planned Hanhikivi 1 unit. Improvements to the 400 kV grid near the Hanhikivi 1 site are needed to implement the NPP. In addition, the electric grid will be strengthened from south to north in order to fulfil all the reliability and capability requirements set for it [9].

The operating NPPs in Finland are located in two different sites, at Olkiluoto and Loviisa. Both are located on the coast of Finland, Loviisa on the south coast and Olkiluoto on the west coast. Both NPPs use the sea as the ultimate heat sink. Loviisa and Olkiluoto are existing sites with operating power plants and developed transport infrastructure.

The Hanhikivi site for the planned new NPP unit is located on the north-west coast of Finland. The Hanhikivi 1 unit is also designed to use the sea as the ultimate heat sink. Hanhikivi is a new site which is currently being prepared, and the infrastructure is being developed for the beginning of NPP construction.

It has been determined that the seismic activity is quite low [13].

The public is informed about all phases of nuclear projects on the national and local level. Everyone is able to give their opinion on the projects in question during the public hearing process. However, a positive decision for any licence can also be challenged by those who are affected by immediate consequences of the licence and the licensee.

Finland has no institutes dedicated solely to nuclear energy research. Most research takes place at VTT. Other major research institutes include Aalto University and Lappeenranta Technical University (LUT), the Geological Survey of Finland, the Finnish Meteorological Institute and the universities of Helsinki, Jyväskylä and Tampere. In addition, STUK and the power companies Fortum, TVO and Posiva Oy carry out internal research, or finance research at research institutes or universities.

In the area of new generation nuclear reactor systems, VTT participated in the European Union’s framework programme projects in the area of new, innovative systems. One example of this is the past project High Performance Light Water Reactor (HPLWR 1 and 2).

Within the research programme Sustainable Energy of the Academy of Finland, a joint effort, New Type Nuclear Reactors (NETNUC), was undertaken during 2008–2011 by a consortium comprising the Finnish technological universities at Lappeenranta and Helsinki (LUT and Aalto University) and VTT. Fortum provided additional funding for this joint project. The research work focused on safety, sustainability and efficiency.

VTT, TVO, Fortum and LUT are partners in the Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform (SNE-TP). The objectives of the platform coincide with many aspects of the NETNUC project on new types of nuclear reactor. Consequently, SAFIR2014 and NETNUC both contribute to the objectives of SNE-TP, which covers both the present and advanced light water reactors (e.g. EPR) and fast reactors with closed fuel cycles, which is crucial for the long term sustainability of nuclear fuel resources. SNE-TP also covers the production of other energy carriers besides electricity. Consequently, participation in this technology platform ensures close networking with other European stakeholders and research organizations. The NETNUC project is closely connected with European Union projects (e.g. HPLWR2 for the supercritical water cooled reactor concept and RAPHAEL for very high temperature reactor/gas cooled fast reactor gas cooled concepts) and other global forums. Another important technology platform is implementing geological disposal of radioactive waste (IGD-TP). The mission of the IGD-TP is to be a tool to support confidence building in the safety and implementation of deep geological disposal solutions. The vision of IGD-TP is that by 2025, the first geological disposal facilities for spent fuel, high level waste and other long lived radioactive waste will be operating safely in Europe.

Finnish Research Programme on Nuclear Waste Management (KYT)

In addition, in the former KYT2014 and currently ongoing KYT2018 research programmes, restricted activities are carried out in the area of advanced fuel cycle concepts — primarily the follow-up of research activities on partitioning and transmutation. Based on the initiative of the former Advisory Group on Nuclear Energy, the research network (GEN4FIN) on advanced nuclear energy systems was established in 2005. The aim of this research network is the further promotion of the maintenance and development of national expertise and international cooperation.

Finland participates actively in international cooperative endeavours regarding nuclear energy. In recent years, the recognition of these trends led to the development of several multinational initiatives, both for research and other purposes. Major initiatives under way include the following:

• The Generation IV International Forum led by the US Department of Energy;

• The International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles;

• The Global Nuclear Energy Partnership;

• The Multinational Design Evaluation Programme;

• The Multinational Fuel Assurance Concept proposed by the IAEA.

At the European level, the Nuclear Illustrative Programme from 2007 underlined the need to develop common instruments within the framework of nuclear safety. The European Commission launched a number of initiatives in the field of nuclear safety, waste management and decommissioning, such as recommendations on the financing of decommissioning activities, the establishment of a Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform (SNE-TP) and the establishment of the European Nuclear Safety Regulators Group, composed of national nuclear regulators, for the further development of a common understanding and European rules in the field of nuclear safety and waste management.

As a result, Council Directive 2009/71/Euratom, establishing a community framework for the safety of nuclear installations, was given in June 2009. In November 2010, the Commission proposed a directive on spent fuel and radioactive waste management. On 19 July 2011, the Council adopted a directive on radioactive waste and spent fuel management, asking Member States to present national programmes, and to indicate when, where and how they will construct and manage final repositories guaranteeing the highest safety standards. The safety standards become legally binding and enforceable in the European Union. Member States were to submit the first report on the implementation of their national programmes in 2015.⁽¹⁾

SNE-TP, launched in September 2007, aims at coordinating research, development, demonstration and deployment in the field of nuclear fission energy. It brings together stakeholders from industry; research organizations, including technical support organizations; universities and national representatives. Regarding joint infrastructures, the recently launched Jules Horowitz Reactor material testing reactor project will, in the short term, support studies on ageing and life extension, safety and fuel performances of Generation II and III light water reactors, and support material and fuel developments for Generation IV reactors. The reactor will be located in Cadarache, France, and VTT will be actively involved in the planning and design of this facility.

SNE-TP’s strategic research agenda and deployment strategy reflect a consensus among a large group of stakeholders on research priorities in the field of nuclear fission, addressing the renaissance of nuclear energy with the deployment of Generation III reactors, and the development of Generation IV systems, both fast neutron reactor systems, with fuel multirecycling for sustainable electricity generating capability, and (very) high temperature reactors for other applications, such as the production of hydrogen or biofuels.

Besides the activities launched by the Commission, Finnish organizations participate actively in other international efforts furthering the international harmonization of nuclear safety standards. The bases for this harmonization should be enhanced cooperation conducted in association with the follow-up conferences on two important IAEA conventions — the Nuclear Safety Convention and the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management — as well as the preparation of nuclear safety guidelines and other documents by the IAEA. Other work currently being performed, such as that of the Western European Nuclear Regulators Association, provides a vital contribution. In addition, new initiatives such as the Multinational Design Evaluation Programme, may contribute to the convergence of national regulatory practices.

General safety regulations are issued by the Government. Detailed regulations and regulatory guides are issued by STUK. The licensing of nuclear installations in Finland (construction licence and operating licence) is the responsibility of the Government. A major nuclear facility also needs a positive DIP by the Government, subject to ratification by the Parliament. Licences for small nuclear facilities (e.g. research reactors with thermal power below 50 MW(e)) are granted by MEAE, which has overall responsibility for control of nuclear energy in Finland.

In Finland, MEAE is responsible for the overall supervision of the use of nuclear energy. The drafting of legislation, the implementation of international agreements in Finland, the supervision of the planning and realization of nuclear waste management, and the administration of the State Nuclear Waste Management Fund constitute a significant part of the ministry’s duties in the nuclear field. The ministry supervises R&D carried out in the field of nuclear safety. Its principal objective is to ensure a high level of safety and operating reliability at existing NPPs and to support the safe and appropriately timed implementation of nuclear waste management. The ministry represents Finland within the European Atomic Energy Community, the IAEA, the Nuclear Energy Agency of the OECD, and the Nordic Nuclear Safety Research Programme. The ministry’s energy department prepares the Government’s and ministry’s decrees and decisions on nuclear energy.

STUK is the authority and expert in radiation and nuclear safety in Finland. It interprets requirements set forth by law and supervises implementation. Furthermore, STUK supervises nuclear materials in order to ensure that they are not used for purposes other than peaceful ones. The objective of STUK’s activities is to maintain Finnish radiation and nuclear safety at a high level and develop a safety culture in society in general. The power company operating an NPP is always responsible for the plant’s safety. It is the duty of STUK to supervise all activities, from the design of plants to their decommissioning; STUK also carried out the national and European Union stress tests in Finland after the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident.

STUK also supervises Posiva’s research, development and planning for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel and the activities of the nuclear power companies in the treatment, storage and final disposal of low and intermediate level reactor waste. In addition, STUK controls the safety of the transportation of nuclear waste and radioactive materials.

STUK operates under the auspices of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. The safety authority maintains close contacts with the MEAE, other government bodies, research institutes, universities and power companies. STUK is assisted by the Advisory Committee on Nuclear Safety in major nuclear safety issues and by the Advisory Committee on Nuclear Security.

The decision making process for the construction of a nuclear facility (e.g. a power plant or a final disposal facility) includes several stages (Figs 2 and 3). First, the operator carries out an EIA on the construction and operation of a nuclear facility. Thereafter, the operator files an application to the Government to obtain a DIP on a new nuclear facility. In case the DIP is positively received, in due course the operator applies for a construction licence from the Government. Towards the end of the construction, the operator applies for an operating licence for the facility. After the necessary official statements are received, the Government decides on whether to issue such an operating licence. The safety aspects of all the licence applications are then assessed by STUK.

FIG. 2. Licensing stages for nuclear facilities in Finland.

Before the DIP is made, an overall description of the installation, including environmental impacts and safety plans, is made available to the public. Public and local authorities are given the opportunity to present their opinions in a public hearing. If the general prerequisites are met and if the municipal council of the site in question is in favour (the host municipality has binding right of veto) of the construction of the installation, the Government may make the DIP. The decision is submitted to the Parliament, which either confirms or rejects it (taking into account political considerations).

The applications for the construction and operating licences are submitted to the Government. The application for a construction licence is more detailed than the application for the DIP and includes safety analysis reports and security plans. On behalf of the Government, the MEAE then asks for several statements. The most important is STUK’s statement on the safety of the facility. The documents to be included in the construction licence application to be submitted to STUK for approval in this phase are defined in Nuclear Energy Decree § 35. After receiving all statements for the construction licence application, the Government issues its decision.

FIG. 3. Licensing of nuclear facilities in Finland (e.g. NPPs and nuclear waste management facilities).

During the operation, an NPP is subjected to three types of regulatory inspections: periodic inspections, inspections that the operating organization must pass in order to continue operation, and continuous re-evaluation of the safety level of the operating plant. Operating licences are granted for a limited period. When renewing a licence, an overall evaluation of the safety of the plant is carried out by STUK.