In October 2014, the Government of Indonesia enacted Government Regulation No. 79 of 2014 on the National Energy Policy (NEP). NEP is a comprehensive policy which covers both the supply and the demand sides. It serves as the main guideline in national energy management to achieve the security of the domestic energy supply.

NEP 2014 would reduce gasoline dependency and increase the use of renewable energy. Figure 1 shows that NEP sets a clear target of the share of each type of primary energy from the year 2025 up to the year 2050 as follows:

• The share/role of new and renewable energy is at least 23% in 2025 and at least 31% in 2050, as long as their economics comply;

• The share/role of oil is less than 25% in 2025 and less than 20% in 2050;

• The share/role of coal is at least 30% in 2025 and 25% in 2050;

• The share/role of gas is at least 22% in 2025 and 24% in 2050.

FIG. 1. Energy mix target.

In NEP 2014, nuclear is included in the new energy group and is considered an energy that comes from new technology according to Act No. 30 of 2007 on energy, which states that new energy is defined as energy coming from new resources, including nuclear, hydrogen, coal bed methane, liquified coal, and gasified coal.

Because management of a nuclear energy programme requires high safety and security standards, especially when considering the impact of nuclear radiation hazards to the environment, nuclear energy utilization is sometimes regarded as a low-priority option. However, in-depth studies have been conducted regarding the technological development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, for fulfilling the needs of the growing energy demand by supplying national energy on a large scale and reducing carbon emissions.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Specific unit	Estimated Available Energy Sources
	Fossil Fuels			Nuclear		Renewables
	Solid1	Liquid1	Gas1	Uranium3	Thorium3	Hydro2	Geothermal1		Solar2
	Million tonnes	Billion barrels	TSCF	Metric tonnes	Metric tonnes	GW	GW	GW
Total amount in specific units	156 519.9	7.25	144.06	79 830	136 966	94.48	28.58		207.90
Total amount in exajoules (EJ)	4587.22	44.35	151.99	2339.62	4014.14	2.98	0.90		6.56

Sources:

¹ Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia 2017, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

² Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia 2016, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

³ National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN).

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

Year	2005	2006			2007	2008		2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014
Final energy consumption
* Total	4.68	4.75			4.93	4.85		5.25	5.72	5.97	6.36	6.42	6.69
- Solid	0.38	0.52			0.71	0.55		0.48	0.80	0.84	0.91	1.04	1.26
- Liquids	2.21	2.12			2.14	2.07		2.43	2.64	2.76	3.06	2.97	2.65
- Gases	0.50	0.48			0.47	0.60		0.69	0.67	0.71	0.733	0.736	1.01
- Nuclear	0.00	0.00			0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
- Hydro	0.00	0.00			0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Other renewables
- Geothermal	0.00	0.00			0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
- Biomass	1.58	1.62			1.61	1.63		1.64	1.60	1.66	1.64	1.67	1.77
Energy production
* Total	11.40	12.54			13.05	13.93		14.59	15.52	17.64	18.62	20.16	17.98
- Solid	4.47	5.68			6.35	7.04		7.50	8.06	10.35	11.31	13.16	10.99
- Liquids	1.98	1.97			1.95	2.03		2.02	1.88	2.00	2.06	1.89	2.15
- Gases	3.15	3.11			2.96	3.04		3.23	3.59	3.43	3.35	3.13	2.76
- Nuclear	0.00	0.00			0.00	0.00		0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
- Hydro	0.2	0.14			0.16	0.17		0.16	0.25	0.18	0.18	0.24	0.22
- Other renewables
Geothermal	0.05	0.05			0.05	0.06		0.07	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.07	0.09
Biomass	1.54	1.58			1.57	1.59		1.6	1.65	1.6	1.64	1.67	1.77
Net import (Import–Export)
* Total	–3.34	–4.38			–4.8	–4.66		–5.59	–5.9	–7.35	–7.87	–8.22	–9.10

Source: Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia 2017, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

The Indonesian power sector is ruled and regulated by the following law and government regulations:

• Act No. 30 of 2009 regarding electricity;

• Government Regulation No. 3 of 2005 regarding amendment of Government Regulation No. 10 of 1985 regarding electricity;

• Ministerial Decree of the Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) No. 9 of 2005;

• Ministerial Decree of MEMR No. 10 of 2005.

The Directorate General of Electricity (DGE) under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources is primarily responsible for formulating electricity policies and regulations. One responsibility of DGE is to prepare a general national electricity plan to meet electricity power demand in a reliable and sustainable way. The National Electricity General Plan (RUKN, Rencana Umum Kelistrikan Nasional) is an integrated policy in the electricity sector comprising projection of electricity demand and supply of power generation, investment and financing, utilization of primary energy resources, as well as new and renewable energy for power generation.

According to Act No. 15 on electricity (1985) and Government Regulation No. 26 on supply and utilization of power generation (2006), the electricity utility should undertake planning and have an electricity power supply business plan (RUPTL, Rencana Umum Pengusahaan Tenaga Listrik).

The structure of the current Indonesian electricity supply industry is shown in Fig. 2. According to Act No. 30 of 2009, Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), which is a state owned enterprise as well as a limited liability company, is the only authority in the country that provides electricity to all Indonesian people. In serving the national electricity demand, PLN produces electricity from its own power plants, including companies which are PLN’s subsidiaries. PLN also acts as the single buyer that purchases electricity from independent power producers (IPPs). Other power producers, aside from PLN and IPPs, are captive power sources, including industries that produce power for their own uses, and some other smaller companies including cooperatives that sell their electricity directly to consumers.

FIG. 2. The structure of current electricity supply industry.

PLN builds and owns most electricity infrastructure in the country. In terms of generation facilities, PLN owns almost all types of power plants, such as coal-fired and oil-fired steam power plants, gas turbines and geothermal, hydroelectric, and diesel plants. Most of these generation facilities are under the management of two of PLN’s subsidiaries: PT Indonesia Power and PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali (PT PJB).

FIG. 3. Current electricity market.

In delivering electricity to its large, medium and small customers while maintaining the quality and reliability of its services, PT PLN developed extensive transmission and distribution networks, including the large scale interconnection power grid in the Java–Bali system.

Furthermore, PT PLN established 11 subsidiaries, including the following:

1. PT Indonesia Power, whose main business is electricity generation.

2. PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali (PT PJB), whose main business is electricity generation.

3. PT PLN Geothermal, a geothermal power plant company.

4. PT National Electricity Service of Batam Island (PT Pelayanan Listrik Nasional Batam — PLN Batam), which engages in electricity provisions for public purposes in the region of Batam Island.

5.  Offtaker of coal source in East Kalimantan, PT Pelayaran Bahtera Adhiguna; national shipping company, which operates in the sea transportation services in Indonesia.

6. PT Indonesia Comnets Plus, whose main business is telecommunication.

7. PT Prima Layanan Nasional Enjiniring (PT PLN Enjiniring), a company in engineering, consultant and construction supervision.

8. PT National Electricity Service Tarakan (PT PLN Tarakan), a provider of electricity for public purposes in Tarakan Island of East Kalimantan.

9. PT PLN Batubara, a coal mine and coal supplier for coal power plants.

10. Majapahit Holding BV, a holding company in Amsterdam, working in the financing sector.

11. PT Haleyora Power, a company providing operation and maintenance of transmission and distribution systems. It established a joint venture company (JVC) in the field of energy provision called PT Energi Pelabuhan Indonesia (EPI), with PT PELINDO II.

Power systems in Indonesia are divided into two types: interconnected systems and isolated systems. The power systems which are interconnected are the Java–Bali system and the Sumatra system, while the rest are still isolated.

At the end of 2015, the total installed capacity and number of generating units of PLN (holding and subsidiary) was 40 265.26 MW and 5218 units, with 27 867.88 MW (69.21%) capacity installed in the Java–Bali system. Total installed capacity increased by 2.57% over the previous year.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

									Average annual growth rate (%)
	2005	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2005 to 2016
Capacity of electrical plants (GWe)
Hydro	3.22	3.52	3.51	3.52	3.52	3.53	3.57	3.57	0.11
Steam	6.9	9.45	12.05	14.45	15.55	20.45	21.09	19.86	0.70
Gas	2.72	3.22	2.84	2.97	2.89	3.01	2.98	3.21	0.83
Combined cycle	6.28	6.95	7.83	8.81	8.81	8.89	8.89	9.20	0.69
Geothermal	0.39	0.44	0.44	0.55	0.57	0.57	0.55	0.58	0.87
Diesel PP	2.99	3.27	2.57	2.60	2.85	2.80	3.18	3.35	0.61
Mini gas PP	0.012	0.039	0.026	0	0	0	0	0	0.14
Other renewable
Wind	0	0.0003	0.0003	0.0003	0.0004	0.0005	0.0010	0.0010	5.45
Solar	0	0.0002	0.0012	0.0062	0.0079	0.0087	0.0089	0.0129	13.72
Total	22.51	26.89	29.27	32.90	34.21	39.26	40.27	39.79	0.50
Electricity production (TWh)
Hydro	9.83	15.83	10.32	10.52	13.01	11.16	10.00	13.89	3.80
Steam	42.27	54.41	62.34	73.82	80.93	89.25	95.82	97.15	0.99
Gas	6.04	7.86	8.25	5.67	5.92	5.45	3.44	3.78	0.61
Combined cycle	31.27	36.81	40.41	34.57	36.42	38.07	38.71	41.91	0.99
Geothermal	3.01	3.4	3.49	3.56	4.34	4.28	4.39	3.96	–0.49
Diesel PP	5.76	5.1	4.01	3.48	3.21	3.55	3.03	3.06	–0.49
Mini gas PP	0	0.073	0.048	0.055	0.38	1.09	1.23	2.61	16.81
Other renewable
Wind	0	0.00002	0.0007	0.0028	0.0055	0	0	0	3.21
Solar	0	0.0005	0	0	0	0.0068	0.0053	0.0059	2.79
Rent of generator	3.1	8.23	13.89	18.07	19.75	22.44	19.84	17.35	1.16
Buy	26.09	38.08	40.68	50.56	52.22	53.26	57.51	64.80	1.99
Total	127.37	169.77	183.42	200.32	216.19	228.55	233.98	248.52	1.19
Total electricity consumption (TWh)	104.86	142.90	154.18	167.41	181.99	189.30	193.72	208.74	1.34

Source: PLN Statistics 2016, PT PLN (Persero).

The system’s peak load in 2016 was 45 323.22 MW. The peak load of Indonesian power production increased by 35.78% compared to the previous year. PT PLN produced about 183 805.99 GWh in 2016, including electricity produced from power generation units rented from other companies. The total production (including purchase from utilities outside PLN or IPP) during the calendar year (CY) 2016 was 248 610.52 GWh, with an increase of 14 628.53 GWh or 6.25 % compared to the previous year. Of this energy production, the energy purchased from other utilities outside PLN amounted to 64 801.55 GWh (26.07%). This increased by 7291.78 GWh or 12.68% over the previous year. Of the total energy purchased, the greater part was 8059 GWh (12.44%) from PT Paiton Energy Company and 7603 GWh (11.73%) from PT Jawa Power.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

	2005	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016
Energy consumption per capita (GJ/capita)	15.943	19.57	20.51	22.15	22.45	29.28	23.94	23.37
Electricity consumption per capita (kWh/capita)	489.02	619.83	655.23	712.45	753.7	787.6	794.0	806.9
Electricity production/Energy production (%)	4.03	3.94	3.74	4.16	4.21	4.58	4.46	4.79
Nuclear/Total electricity (%)	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Ratio of external dependency (%)	–0.8	–0.9	–1	–0.25	–0.24	–1.23	–1.62	–1.51

Sources:

PLN Statistics 2016, PT PLN (Persero).

Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia 2017, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

Historical activities related to the nuclear power plant (NPP) programme in Indonesia are shown in Fig. 4.

FIG. 4. Historical activities related to the nuclear power plant programme.

In 2000–2002, the Indonesian Government engaged in an energy planning study (Comprehensive Assessment of Different Energy Sources, CADES). This study involved related institutions and ministries, and was reviewed by the IAEA. The result of this study was submitted to President Abdurrahman Wahid by IAEA Director General Mohammad ElBaradei in 2003. Based on the result of this study, an NPP in Indonesia was planned to start operating in 2016.

In the National Electricity General Plan (2005–2025), nuclear power shall contribute to electricity generation. In Presidential Decree No. 5 of 2006 on National Energy Policy (2005–2025), the target for the optimum energy mix in 2025 set the contribution of biomass, nuclear, hydro, solar and wind at more than 5% of the total national energy supply. In addition, in accordance with Act No. 17 of 2007 on National Long Term Development Planning, nuclear energy should be introduced during 2015–2019.

In 2009, Indonesia prepared, developed and conducted a self-evaluation of the status of its national nuclear infrastructure development. The IAEA’s Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) Mission reviewed the status of Indonesia’s national nuclear infrastructure on 23–27 November 2009. The INIR mission concluded that Indonesia had done extensive preparatory work on most infrastructure issues, which would allow the country to make the decision to further consider introducing nuclear power, i.e. to go from Phase 1 to Phase 2 in the milestone methodology defined by the IAEA.

A comprehensive feasibility study was carried out over three consecutive years, from 2011 to 2013, on Bangka Island, Bangka Belitung Province, by the Indonesian Government through BATAN and PLN, assisted by both domestic and international consultants. In this study, two selected site candidates were identified on Bangka Island: Bangka Barat Regency and Bangka Selatan Regency. Both selected candidate sites are feasible for NPP development.

The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources is preparing a white paper on a 5,000 MW(e) NPP in Indonesia. It is intended to be a source of information and reference for all stakeholders in any decision on the construction of NPPs in Indonesia.

A study to implement a non-commercial research reactor or experimental power reactor (Indonesian Experiment Power Reactor, I-EPR) was conducted, and the basic design was obtained in 2017. The reactor is based on pebble-bed fueled HTGR technology with 10 MW(th).

Based on a technology assessment and funding considerations, HTGR is one viable option, particularly related to the market need in Indonesia as it is an archipelago rich in natural mineral resources (such as are found on Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua). I-EPR is expected to become a reference in commercial NPP development.

I-EPR development has several objectives, including the safe operation of small NPP demonstrations, implementation of a research and development (R&D) programme in the new and renewable energy field, increasing technology capacity in terms of NPP design, construction, operation and maintenance, as well as the capacity of NPP development project management. It is expected that through the safe operation of I-EPR, public trust in the safety of power reactors and the capacity to operate a nuclear reactor will increase. The public trust is very important to the success of large NPP development to achieve national energy sovereignity.

Indonesia has not yet established a Nuclear Energy Programme Implementing Organization (NEPIO). It should be noted that some available institutions, such as the National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Research and Technology, Ministry of Industry, Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency (BAPETEN), universities and the state electricity company have played essential roles similar to those of a NEPIO.

The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources is responsible for energy and electricity policy, the Ministry of Research and Technology for science and technology policy, and the Ministry of Environment for site and environmental policy, while the Ministry of Industry leads in national industry and technology transfer policy.

FIG. 5. Institutions involved in the nuclear power programme.

FIG. 6. Responsible institutions and their scope of work.

BATAN, in collaboration with a number of universities, has participated in R&D activities, including technical consultancy, human resources and training, public information and socialization as well as site preparation. BAPETEN has a role as a regulatory body in nuclear regulation and licensing.

Starting in 2009, BATAN, in cooperation with other relevant government institutions, has been preparing, developing and conducting a self-evaluation on the national status of 19 basic infrastructures of NPP development. Figure 6 shows the responsible institutions and their scope of work in infrastructure preparation for a nuclear power programme.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Station	Type	Net capacity	Operator	Status	Reactor supplier	Construction date	Grid date	Commercial date	Shutdown date	UCF for year
n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.

Not applicable.

TABLE 6. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor unit	Shutdown reason	Decommissioning strategy	Current decommissioning phase	Current fuel management phase	Decommissioning licence	Licence termination year
n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.

Although the Government of Indonesia has not taken the decision to ‘Go Nuclear’, Indonesia is actively preparing for a potential first NPP development programme through activities such as a feasibility study, all while gauging other infrastructure issues.

Indonesia is considering an NPP project through an open bid mechanism. The type of contract for a first NPP is a turnkey approach. Regarding the nuclear fuel cycle, an open cycle is a preferred option. According to BAPETEN Chairman Regulation No. 4 of 2009 on Nuclear Reactor Decommissioning, NPP owners bear the responsibility for decommissioning activities, including a provision for financial guarantees. 

Specific plans are still needed for national strategy implementation. The nuclear infrastructure is being developed through many related institutions, based on their tasks.

The government plans to develop a road map for nuclear energy development. Further explanation of nuclear energy in the national energy policy will be included in a this road map for the implementation of nuclear power, which will outline technological aspects, fuel type, location, safety, financing, and human resources readiness, along with multicriteria evaluation. Activities and coordinating institutions for road map development are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7. ACTIVITIES AND COORDINATING INSTITUTIONS FOR ROADMAP DEVELOPMENT

No.	Activities	Coordinator institution
1.	Research on the development of nuclear technology as well as economy and safety aspects	Ministry of Research Technology and Higher Education
2.	Encourage the mastery of nuclear technology in line with the latest developments in nuclear technology advances in the world	Ministry of Research Technology and Higher Education
3.	Carry out a multi-criteria analysis of nuclear power plant (NPP) implementation covering urgent importance, large scale, supply assurance, energy supply equilibrium, carbon emission reduction, safety factor, and economy of scale by involving views from various stakeholders	Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
4.	Develop road map of NPP implementation as the last option in the national energy development priority	Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
5.	Build international cooperation related to the study of nuclear power plant development	Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources

TABLE 8. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Station/Project name	Type	Capacity	Expected construction start year	Expected commercial year
n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.

Construction, operation and decommissioning of nuclear reactors shall be performed by a state owned company, cooperative, and/or private company, as mentioned in Act No 10 of 1997 as well as in Government Regulation No. 2 of 2014 on the Licensing of Nuclear Installations and Nuclear Fuel Utilization.

Regarding the operation of an NPP, the operator should apply for a licence or permit from BAPETEN for its site, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning.

The owner is responsible for the type of contract suitable to implement each NPP project. However, up to now, no organization has been established as the owner of the first NPP. A study report on project management for NPPs conducted by BATAN and Korea Nuclear and Hydro Power (KHNP) shows that a turnkey contract approach is most feasible for the first NPP project.

Local participation in the construction of an NPP should be maximized. The national industry capability shows that local participation is about 35% for the first NPP and is targeted to increase to 80% respectively from Step 1 up to Step 5, as described in Fig. 7.

FIG. 7. Rate of national participation.

To increase local participation from 35% to 80% gradually, the nuclear field capability should be improved in the following areas: project management and engineering, other mechanical plants, electrical system, instrumentation and control, turbine island equipment, waste management system, fuel handling system, reactor containment facilities and Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS) auxiliary system.

Policies and requirements for purchasing nuclear equipment and services are not considered yet, but should follow existing regulations.

The funding scheme for the NPP project in Indonesia is still under consideration. There are three kinds of NPP funding schemes: conventional scheme, build–operate–transfer (BOT) scheme, including its variants (build–own–operate (BOO)/build–lease–transfer (BLT)), and counter trade scheme. A study (2006) undertaken by BATAN, PLN and KHNP proposed a financing scheme and ownership structure for the first NPP in Indonesia. The funding for the construction of the first NPP may be a combination of a long term loan and equity. The loan would be used mostly to finance procurement of foreign contents, most likely obtained from the Export Credit Agency (ECA) and a commercial bank through a loan agreement with the ‘NPP company’, which could be owned by the government. Most of the equity portion would be used to finance local capital expenditures such as land acquisition, professional fees, mobilization, and certification. The equity will be sourced partly from the public utility’s own funds, which might be PLN or another state owned enterprise/company in partnership with private investors.

Funding for spent fuel handling, waste management and decommissioning and final disposal is the responsibility of the owner.

Presently, an integrated electrical grid system exists in Java–Bali–Madura and Sumatra. The Java–Bali–Madura system is interconnected with 500 kV and 150 kV lines, while Sumatra is interconnected with 275 kV and 150 kV lines. Power transmission in Java–Bali and Sumatra will be integrated. PT PLN plans to expand the interconnection project through a high voltage direct current (HVDC) electricity transmission system. The combining of the two-trusted interconnection is expected to facilitate cheap and efficient energy use. The interconnection system will be designed to distribute 3000 MW from Sumatra to Java–Bali. It will consist of an AC to DC power converter station in Muara Enim, South Sumatra. DC power will then be converted to AC (inverter station) in Bogor, West Java. If a Bangka NPP becomes possible, this power transmission integration will ease the electricity distribution from Sumatra to Java.

Currently, on Kalimantan Island, a 150 kV line interconnects the provinces of Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan and East Kalimantan. However, West Kalimantan Province is still isolated from the other provinces.

There are several locations in Indonesia that have been identified as potential sites for NPPs. Figure 8 shows the location of each site and its recent status: Muria Peninsula, Banten, East Kalimantan, Bangka Island, West Kalimantan and Batam Island. A site pre-survey for Batam Island was started in 2015. All of the potential sites were located in coastal areas owing to the availability of cooling water.

In conducting the site survey and evaluation, IAEA guidance and BAPETEN regulations related to the safety and non-safety aspects and other considerations are used as the basis for safety and non-safety analysis.

FIG. 8. Current status of nuclear power plant site study.

Muria Site

The feasibility study for the Muria Peninsula was completed in 1996, identifying three candidate sites: Ujung Lemahabang (ULA), Ujung Watu (UW) and Ujung Grenggengan (UG). Two sites were preferred, namely ULA and UW. Site evaluation of the ULA preferred site was conducted by NEWJEC in 1991–1996, while the UW site has not yet been evaluated. Nonetheless, it remains to be seen whether international guidance or national regulation will require intensive investigation of the ULA site due to its volcanology, geotechnical and seismotectonic aspects.

Banten Site

Based on a preliminary study begun in 2008, there are two potential sites in Banten Province, namely Pulo Panjang and Kramatwatu-Bojonegara. This study provides regional and near-regional analysis. The characteristics of both sites are as following:

• Safe from external hazard (volcanic, surface faulting, seismicity, extreme meteorology, and coastal flooding);

• Not located in an area at risk of pyroclastic density current (PDC) from an active volcano;

• Distance from supposed capable fault > 5 km;

• Peak ground acceleration (PGA) value < 0.4 g;

• Not an area that has tornado events or tropical cyclones;

• No flooded by tsunami waves caused by historical tectonic earthquake and Krakatoa volcanic activity(1883);

• Not inundated by sea level rise due to global warming (eustasy) in 100 year projection;

• Not in urban and population centres and with a distance to the outer border of population centre of > 1 km;

• Safe from human activities that pose potential safety threats.

Bangka Site

The feasibility study carried out on Bangka Island consisted of three phases over three consecutive years from 2011 to 2013. Based on the study, there are two areas of interest at the Bangka site: Site 1 (Teluk Manggris–Tanah Merah, Mentok, West Bangka Regency) and Site 2 (Tj. Berani–Tj. Krasak, Sebagian, Simpang Rimba, South Bangka Regency). A licensing document, consisting of a site data report (SDR), site evaluation report (SER), site data information (SDI), concept of an environmental impact analysis (EIA) and a draft of an NPP master plan, was drawn up in 2013.

Site 1 can be reached from Pangkal Pinang through Kelapa by approximately 140 km of paved road, then by about 4 to 6 km of unpaved road, of which only 3 km can be accessed by car and the rest by motorcycle or four-wheel drive vehicle. Site 2 can be reached from Pangkal Pinang through Sungai Selan, Bangka Kota, Simpang Rimba, and the villages of Permis, Rajik and Sebagin by a 83.5 km paved road. There are five major harbours and one mid-sized airport at the site.

Based on the feasibility study performed, West and South Bangka are considered feasible NPP sites due to the conditions for site acceptance.

The ultimate capacity for the West Bangka site is 6 x 1000 MW(e) and for the South Bangka site is 4 x 1000 MW(e).

West Kalimantan Site

Based on the conformity analysis of Ketapang and Kayong Utara Regency, there are three areas of interest located in Ketapang Regency and another area of interest located in Kayong Utara Regency. By using a weighting approach, these areas are ranked as follows: Kendawung District (Ketapang Regency), first; Sukadana District (Kayong Utara Regency), second; and Matan Hilir Selatan District (Ketapang Regency), last.

From a geological point of view, each of the potential sites has a relatively stable formation, with reasonably similar lithological conditions and a safe distance from volcanic hazards. More specifically, in Kendawangan Subdistrict, granite and volcanic rock was found. The land cover of Ketapang Regency is dominated by peat, with a depth of more than 3 metres.

East Kalimantan Site

Pre-survey activities in 2007–2008 examined eight potential sites: (1) Tanjung Prapat and Tanjung Saban, Paser Regency; (2) Babulu Laut, Penajam Paser Utara Regency; (3) the industrial area of Kariangau, Balikpapan; (4) Sandaran Subdistrict, Kutai Timur Regency; (5) Sanggata Subdistrict, Kutai Timur Regency; (6) Pulau Derawan Subdistrict, Berau Regency; (7) Talisayan, Berau Regency; and (8) Biduk-biduk, Berau Regency. In 2009, pre-survey activities covered only Balikpapan, Kutai Timur Regency and Berau Regency, which yielded four interest areas: (1) Tanjung Batu, Berau Regency; (2) Talisayan, Berau Regency; (3) Tanjungpagar, Kutai Timur Regency; and (4) Kariangau, Balikpapan.

Generally, all the potential sites located in East Kalimantan are safe from volcanic and seismic hazards. From a lithological point of view, Balikpapan is composed of Miocene–Pliocene and Holocene rock, and Kutai Timur Regency is composed of Eocene–Pliocene rock. Compact bedrock has been found in Berau Regency that consists of Domaring Formation and Sajau Formation. Alluvial sedimentation has dispersed along the coastal line of each potential site. Berau Regency has several major rivers: the Berau, Kelay and Segah. These rivers have the potential to cause flooding at their estuaries due to the slope morphology.

Balikpapan is a city with a well developed infrastructure. Road infrastructure is mostly well interconnected within the region. There is an airport, Sepinggan airport, which has been the main access point to enter East Kalimantan Province.

Land transportation in Kutai Timur Regency consists of several routes. The condition of the road between Samarinda and Sangatta is fairly good as a main route. For air transportation, there are two airports: Kaltim Prima Coal (KPC) airport at Tanjung Bara and Pertamina airport at Sangkimah. There are also an existing seaport and harbour in the area.

In Berau Regency, the road from Kutai Timur Regency is in fairly good condition and is used as the province’s main route. Sea transportation is used to connect to other regions such as from Kota Tanjung Batu to Batu Putih. This route is relatively more comfortable and economical. Kalimarau airport in Berau Regency (4 km from Tanjung Redeb) provides regional transportation between Berau and Balikpapan, Tarakan, Tanjung Selor and Samarinda .

Batam Site

With the intention of developing an alternative energy infrastructure as an effort to increase investment opportunity, the Batam Indonesia Free Zone Authority (BIFZA), in cooperation with BATAN, plans to develop nuclear technology, especially in the energy sector. Following up the plan, a series of preliminary studies on nuclear power plant development have been carried out, which include siting. In order to identify potential sites, pre-survey activities were performed in 2015 covering Batam, Rempang and Galang islands, also called the Barelang islands. The Barelang islands are located at 0°25'29?–1°15'00? N and 103°34'35?–104°26'04? E. The area covered by the Barelang islands is 715 km², which consists of Batam Island (415 km²), Rempang Island (165.83 km²), Galang Island (80 km²) and Galang Baru Island (32 km²).

The pre-survey activities were carried out using secondary data which include DEM satellite imagery of the Barelang islands, a morphological map, a geological map, and a hydrogeological map. The following general criteria were applied:

Maximum distance to the shoreline is 3 km;

• Not a permanent swamp;

• Not a protected/conservation forest;

• Minimum distance to the outside boundary of densely population areas (> 25 000 people) is 1 km;

• Maximum distance to the airport is 8 km.

Afterward, in accordance with IAEA Standards Series, Evaluation of Seismic Hazards for Nuclear Power Plants, specific criteria were then applied which include capable fault and pyroclastic flow identification. In terms of tectonics and seismicity, the Barelang islands are considered a non-active tectonic area. No active fault has been identified. Nevertheless, based on a geological map published by the Indonesia Geological Agency, faults exist in the Tanjungkerotang Formation (Tmpt) on Rempang Island and the northern part of Galang Island.

Based on the pre-survey activities, five areas of interest were identified: Kelurahan Rempang (Tanjung Kelingking)–Rempang Island, and Kelurahan Sijantung–western coast of Galang Island, Tanjung Batu and Tanjung Ramai (Desa Karas)–eastern coast of Galang Island.

Serpong I-EPR Site

In order to fulfil Indonesia’s legislative mandate (Act No. 10 of 1997 on Nuclear Energy, Act No. 17 of 2007 on a National Long Term Development Plan, Government Regulation No. 14 of 2015 on a Master Plan of National Industry Development, Government Regulation No. 2 of 2015 on a National Medium Term Development Plan 2015–2019), BATAN plans to construct a non-commercial I-EPR, based on HTGR technology with a thermal power output around 10 MW(th) (2.9 MW(e)).The inlet temperature is around 250° C, while the outlet temperature is about 520° C.

The project has been initiated by pre-project activities (2014–2017). I-EPR is a very strategic intermediate objective in terms of NPP technology and industry mastery as well as NPP provision.

The I-EPR site is located within the Serpong nuclear complex, where RSG-GAS is now located. A corresponding site study was also conducted in 2014–2015 of several aspects such as seismology, volcanology, geotechnics and foundation, meteorology, hydrology, man-induced events and dispersion and population distribution. Prior to the site evaluation study, Site Evaluation Programme and Site Evaluation Management System documents were sent to BAPETEN. A permit to conduct the evaluation was issued in 25 February 2015. BAPETEN granted the site permit on 23 January 2017.

Although the site permit has been issued, the geotechnical, meteorological, hydrological and dispersion aspects still need to be addressed before the design permit application is submitted to the regulatory body.

West Nusa Tenggara Site

Local government interest in the use of nuclear energy as an alternative source of energy is high. One such government is the province of West Nusa Tenggara, marked for a feasibility study on the construction of an NPP on Panjang Island located to the north of West Nusa Tenggara Province.

Pre-survey activities were carried out in 2017 on the island using mainly secondary data, including a morphological map, geological map, hydrogeological map and vulcanological map. General criteria were applied at this stage for the following aspects:

Geology and topography;

• Distance to the shoreline is 3 km;

• Not categorized as permanent swamp area;

• Protected/conservation forest.

Based on a limited field survey, the proposed area of Panjang Island is not eligible as a candidate for the construction of an NPP, owing to highly sloping topography, an undesirable geological condition that does not meet the requirements, and the fact that the island includes a mangrove conservation area. It will therefore be necessary to search for alternative locations. In 2018, further pre-survey activities will be performed on Lombok and Sumbawa islands for external events, including aspects such as seismology, volcanology, seismotectonics and meteorology, to obtain a number of areas of interest for further study.

In order to survey public perceptions of the utilization of NPPs in Indonesia, a poll was conducted in November 2010 for 3000 respondents. The poll’s results showed that 59.7% agreed on the need for nuclear power, 26.1% disagreed and 14.2% abstained. After the Fukushima NPP accident in 2011, a poll was conducted for the same number of respondents and the number that agreed on the need for nuclear power decreased to 49.5%. In 2012, a poll involving 5000 respondents was conducted and it showed that public acceptance had increased to 52%. A poll in 2013 showed that public acceptance for utilization of NPPs in Indonesia had increased to 60.4%. In the poll in 2014, public acceptance of utilization of NPPs in Indonesia had increased significantly: 72% were found to be in agreement. In 2015, survey results indicate that 75.3% support the construction of an NPP. Results of a poll commissioned by an independent survey agency in 2016 reveal that 77.53% of Indonesians agree with the Government’s plan to develop NPPs.

R&D in nuclear science and technology are mainly conducted by BATAN. Nuclear R&D activities are classified into reactor safety, radiation safety, environmental safety, radiation and radioisotope application, and radioactive waste management. R&D activities are implemented in several nuclear complexes as described in the following paragraphs.

Serpong nuclear complex

There are many centres in the Serpong nuclear complex for R&D and engineering in nuclear science and technology that were built with the objectives of supporting development of the nuclear industry and of the preparation, development and operation of NPPs in Indonesia.

The installations and laboratories of the Serpong nuclear complex were developed in three phases, beginning in 1983, and fully completed in 1992. The area covers about 25 hectares and is located in the National Centre for Research of Science and Technology (PUSPIPTEK), Serpong.

The main facility in the area is the GA. Siwabessy Multipurpose Research Reactor, with a power of 30 MW. The facility is used for the production of research reactor fuel elements; the installation of radioisotopes and radiopharmaceuticals, experimental fuel elements, radioactive waste processing, radiometallurgy, reactor safety and engineering, nuclear mechanic-electronics and neutron spectrometry and storage for spent fuel elements and contaminated materials; and for the development of informatics and computation.

Bandung nuclear complex

The Bandung nuclear complex was initially constructed in the early 1960s in an area covering 3 hectares, where the first research reactor was built in Indonesia. The activities conducted cover the utilization of the reactor for research and fostering of expertise; R&D on basic materials, radioisotopes and labelled compounds; instrumentation and radiometry analysis techniques; and supervision of occupational radiation safety and the environment.

In addition, nuclear medicine in Indonesia was first developed in the Bandung nuclear complex. The activities in nuclear medicine have been further developed in several hospitals in Indonesia since then.

In order to support R&D activities, the Bandung nuclear complex utilizes various facilities, among others, the Triga Mark II Reactor, which started with a power of 250 kW in 1965. The power of this reactor was increased to 1000 kW in 1971 and to 2000 kW in 2000.

Other facilities in this area include the laboratories for physics, chemistry and biology, production of isotopes and labelled compounds.

Yogyakarta nuclear complex

The Yogyakarta nuclear complex was established in 1974 on 8.5 hectares. The Centre for Science and Technology of Accelerator and the Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology are located within this area.

The activities conducted cover R&D in nuclear physics, chemistry, technology of low and medium energy particle accelerators, process technology, analysis of nuclear materials and reactors, as well as the use of reactors for research and to foster expertise.

In addition, occupational radiation safety and of environmental radioactivity are also supervised. The Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology conducts programmes of education in the field of nuclear science and technology.

The facilities in this area include the Kartini Research Reactor, with a power of 100 kW, complemented with a subcritical assembly, a laboratory for pure materials research, accelerators, laboratories for nuclear physics and chemistry, a work health and safety facility, library facilities, as well as laboratory facilities for education.

Pasar Jum’at nuclear complex

The Pasar Jum’at nuclear complex was built in 1966 on about 20 hectares.  The Centre for Application of Isotope and Radiation, Centre for Technology of Radiation Safety and Metrology, Centre for Technology of Nuclear Geology, Centre for Education and Training and Centre for Dissemination and Partnerships are located here.

The following facilities, among others, are in this area: three units of Co-60 gamma irradiators; two electron beam machines; a laboratory for uranium processing; radiation measuring equipment, laboratories for chemistry, biology, process and hydrology; an education and training facility; as well as a permanent exhibition for nuclear science and technology.

Monitoring stations for microearthquakes and meteorology Jepara–Central Java and Bangka Island

Since 1982, a monitoring station for microearthquakes and meteorology was built and operated in Ujung Watu village in Jepara–Central Java. The microearthquake monitoring station records data on volcanic as well as tectonic earthquakes, while the meteorology station records air pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature, humidity and solar radiation.

Since 2011, an identical facility has been operated on Bangka Island to record the data of microearthquakes and meteorology on the Bangka site. Currently, there are microearthquake monitoring stations surrounding Bangka Island and two on-site meteorology monitoring stations in operation.

Indonesia participates in the development of nuclear reactor systems through the INPRO project. There is also a plan to develop a HTR design with cogeneration purposes.

Indonesia signed a number of international agreements and has engaged in bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the field of nuclear power development. A complete list of international agreements and cooperative activities is provided in Appendix 1.

Profile of the Regulatory Body

BAPETEN is a non-department government institution which is under and responsible to the President. BAPETEN is responsible for implementing the surveillance of all activities relating to the use of nuclear energy in Indonesia through regulation, licensing and inspection in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. BAPETEN was founded on 8 May 1998 and began actively working on 4 January 1999.

The functions of BAPETEN are:

• Formulation of national policies in the field of supervision of the use of nuclear energy; preparation and creation of national plans and programmes in the field of supervision of nuclear energy utilization;

• The management and preparation of regulations and the review of the implementation of nuclear safety, radiation safety, and security of nuclear materials;

• Implementation of licensing and inspection of construction and operation of nuclear reactors, nuclear installations, nuclear materials facilities, and sources of radiation as well as the development of nuclear preparedness; implementation of cooperation in the field of monitoring of the use of nuclear energy by government agencies or other organizations both inside and outside of the territory of Indonesia;

• Implementation of surveillance and control of nuclear materials; implementation of guidance and information concerning the efforts to ensure the safety and health of the workers and members of the public as well as environmental protection;

• Implementation of the improvement of human resources development and quality in BAPETEN; implementation of administrative guidance, control and supervision within BAPETEN;

• Implementation of other tasks assigned by the President.

Role and Responsibility of the Regulatory Body

BAPETEN, as an independent regulatory body, is responsible for ensuring that any activity related to the use of nuclear energy is performed in such a way that the safety, security and peace as well as the health of the workers and the public are maintained, and that the environment is protected. This is ensured by:

1. Drafting and establishing nuclear safety regulations;

2. Controlling nuclear installations and nuclear materials through licensing and inspection systems that cover all stages of NPP establishment (from site evaluation to decommissioning stages);

3. Controlling the use of radioactive materials and other radiation sources through licensing and inspection systems.

Scope of Activities

Nuclear Energy Act UU No. 10 of 1997 explains the important supervisory function in protecting public health and the health of the environment: the creation of regulations, licensing and inspections. This supervisory function is BAPETEN’s main role.

Making Rules: BAPETEN is responsible for the creation of rules and safety regulations. Representing the government, BAPETEN cooperates with the House of Representatives in drafting government regulations on the safe use of radiation sources. BAPETEN also assists the President of the Republic of Indonesia in drafting Presidential decrees.

As a regulatory agency, BAPETEN has issued more than 30 recommendations and safety instructions on the use of nuclear energy. All regulations and instructions can be found on the BAPETEN web site.

Licensing: The use of nuclear energy without prior permission from BAPETEN is prohibited. As of June 2005, BAPETEN had issued 3162 permits for industrial activities, 2958 permits for medical activities and 3383 working licences for radiation protection officers.

BAPETEN continues to try to raise awareness about radiation safety, which is important since many users of nuclear energy have not reported to BAPETEN on their ownership and use of radioactive materials and their radiation emitting devices.

Inspection: BAPETEN conducts supervisory inspections to ensure compliance with the safety regulations and provisions relevant to the permit conditions.

Organization of the Regulatory Body

BAPETEN is headed by a chairman assisted by two deputies and one executive secretary. It has seven directorates, two centres for assessment, three bureaus, an Internal Affairs department and one Education and Training Centre, as shown in Fig. 10. According to regulations, the chairman of BAPETEN is directly responsible to the President.

FIG. 10. Organizational chart of the regulatory body.

Based on Government Regulation No. 2 of 2014 on the Licensing of Nuclear Installations and Nuclear Fuel Utilization, which replaced Government Regulation No. 43 of 2006, a nuclear reactor can be constructed and operated after obtaining a licence from BAPETEN. The licence will be issued in the following stages: site permit, construction permit, operating licence and decommissioning permit. A diagram of the entire licensing process is shown in Fig. 11.



FIG. 11. Diagram of the entire licensing process.

The procedure for obtaining a licence includes a five stage licensing procedure, outlined below, and an evaluation period:

1. Site permit/licence (maximum 2 years);

2. Construction permit/licence (maximum 2 years);

3. Commissioning permit/licence (maximum 1 year);

4. Operating licence (maximum 2 years);

5. Decommissioning permit (maximum 1 year).