The government announced a long-term strategy in January 2014 that will determine the direction of its national energy policy until 2035. The Second Energy Master Plan aimed at reducing final energy consumption by 13% by 2035, with six basic directions: conversion to demand management policies, establishment of distributed generation system, balance with the environment and safety, enhancement of energy security and stable energy supply, stable supply system of each energy source and energy policy reflecting public opinion.

• The overall energy saving goal for 2035 is nearly 34 Mtoe, 47% should be achieved in industry (16 Mtoe), 36% in the transport sector (12 Mtoe), 13% in the residential and commercial sector (4 Mtoe) and 4% in the public sector (1.3 Mtoe).

• The Government plans to depend more on environmental-friendly new and renewable energy such as photovoltaic energy, and wind power energy (increasing their share from 3.9% in 2014 to 11% by 2035), and reduce its reliance on fossil fuels.

The principle ministry responsible for developing the electricity policy in Korea is the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE). MOTIE works in consultation and close co-operation with the Ministry of Strategy and Finance (MOSF), six generation companies (GenCos) and the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO). With energy being regarded as a key component of Korea’s rapid economic development, the government has maintained a strong presence in the sector.

MOTIE, either through direct or indirect government ownership of energy companies, utilities and several energy research institutes, has maintained a high degree of control in all aspects of energy policy development and implementation.

The Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) has the overall responsibility for ensuring nuclear safety through regulatory activities. The NSSC is also a policy maker for the nuclear sector.

MOTIE continues to establish the biannual Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand (BPE for short) that provides the long-term energy policy directions and information on electricity supply and demand, such as the electricity facility plan, to secure stable electricity supply. Generation companies can apply for government approval of their generation business and power plant construction plans based on the BPE.

The 7th BPE was established in 2015 and covers a planning period from 2015 to 2029. The BPE was made based on the construction intentions of GenCos and the demand forecast provided by Korea Power Exchange (KPX). For establishing the plan, the government reviewed and prepared the working drafts of four subcommittees (Generating capacity expansion, Demanding forecast, Demand side management and Transmission system expansion), and collected opinions on every aspect from various economic organizations through a public hearing.

The basic directions of the 7th BPE are as follows:

• Power Supply Stability on Top Priority: The top-notch focus in the expansion of generation facilities was power supply stability in response to a possible instability of power supply caused by any drastic changes in temperatures and delays in construction of facilities.

• Accurate and Objective Demand Forecast: Forecast has been based on a scientific modeling and the fact-based decision by the subcommittee consisting of experts in power demands, away from personal judgement. There has been remarkable improvement in modeling the demand forecast by considering the power demand trend of 14 developed countries and the changes in temperatures.

• Low-carbon Energy Mix for Post-2020 Greenhouse Gas Reduction: The BPE needs to reflect both the pending construction of four nuclear power plants (6,000MW) under the 6^th BPE and the largest of nuclear power plant share (29%) by 2035 under the 2^nd Master Plan for National Energy (MPNE).

Generation

6 power generation companies, independent power producers, and community energy systems are producing electric power, and KEPCO transports the electric power it purchased from the Korea Power Exchange through the transmission and distribution network, and sells it to general customers.

Transmission and Distribution

KEPCO has pushed forward 765kV power transmission voltage upgrade project to address serious supply imbalance between high-demand Seoul metropolitan and large-sized power generation complexes and to support efficient use of national land. About 175.9km line linking Dangjin thermal power plant to Shin-seosan and Shin-anseong substation and 154.9km line linking Shin-taebaek to Shin-gapyeong substation are already in operation and the 46.5km line linking Ulchin nuclear power plant to Shin-taebaek substation has been completed as 765kV in April, 2006. The line is currently operating as 345kV but will be upgraded to 765kV by 2014. KEPCO also built 765kV one-circuit line 75km long that links Shin-anseong substation and Sin-gapyeong substation, which started operation in April, 2010, and is now building a 91km two-circuit line linking Shin-kori substation to North Gyeongnam substation. These two lines are expected to play a key role in improving system voltage and supply conditions in Seoul metropolitan and provide conditions to effectively transport electric power generated in high-capacity power plants. The 765kV upgrade project applied with new technology and new processes is expected to enhance technological level of domestic construction firms and materials providers and global competitiveness.

Table 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

(1) Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Source: Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng)

Table 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

(1) Net import / Total energy consumption.

Source: Energy Info. Korea 2015 by Korea Energy Economics Institute (http://www.kesis.net/)

Nuclear activities in Korea were initiated in 1957 when Korea became a member of the IAEA. The following year, Korea passed its Atomic Energy Law. In 1959, the Office of Atomic Energy was established in conformity with the global trend toward development of peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Korea has carried out a very ambitious nuclear power program since the 1970s in parallel with the nation’s industrialization policy. Korea has maintained a strong commitment to nuclear power development as an integral part of its national energy policy, aiming to reduce external vulnerability and insure against global fossil fuel shortages. Currently, Korea has one of the most dynamic nuclear power programs in the world.

During the early years of nuclear power development, power plants were constructed mostly through turnkey contracts, providing little opportunity for domestic industries to participate in the construction. Since then, however, domestic participation in overall construction management, design, equipment supply and civil construction has continuously increased through the adoption of non-turnkey approaches. As part of this trend, a high degree of technological self-reliance in various fields of the nuclear industry has been achieved through the construction of Yonggwang-3 & 4. At present, nuclear power plant (NPP) technology and related fuel cycle technologies are maturing.

The first domestic reactors were Ulchin-3 & 4, 1,000 MWe PWRs initially called the Korea Standard Nuclear Power Plant (KSNP), but now referred to as the OPR1000, which entered commercial operation in 1998. The Ulchin-3 & 4 became the reference plant for OPR1000 plants thereafter. Six more OPR1000 plants are being built at Ulchin, Shin-Kori and Shin-Wolsong as shown in Table 5.

The newly advanced reactors being built at Shin Kori-3 & 4 are 1,400 MWe PWRs, called APR1400. These third generation reactors have been under construction since September 2007. The plants are evolutionally advanced in the field of technology, safety and economics. Two more APR1400 plants are being built at the Shin-Ulchin site, as shown in Table 6.

Nuclear-related activities are planned and carried out by various organizations such as the Ministry of Science, ICT & future Planning (MSIP), the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE), the Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC).

The MSIP has the overall responsibility for the nation’s nuclear research and development and nuclear international cooperation affairs.

The MOTIE is responsible for the construction and operation of NPPs, the nuclear fuel supply, and the management of radioactive waste.

The NSSC is responsible for nuclear safety, security and non-proliferation as a regulatory body.

Source: Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning

FIG 3 Main nuclear-related organizations in South Korea

Currently, a total gross capacity of 21.7 GW_e is installed in the 24 operating Korean NPPs, comprising 20 PWRs and 4 CANDU pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs). There are five units under construction. Table 5 shows the status of NPPs as of June 2016 and Figure 4 shows the geographical locations.

Table 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

FIG 4. Geographical location of NPPs

Plant upgrading and plant life management

Beginning in September 2002, KHNP conducted Power Uprating Projects for Kori-3 & 4 to uprate their reactor thermal power and eventually to increase their electrical output. Kori-3 & 4 reached their new rated thermal power (2,900MWth, 4.5% SPU uprating) in December and February 2009, respectively, and increased their electrical output by 34.1MWe from 999MWe (original output) to 1,033.1MWe (uprated output).

After implementation of Power Uprating (SPU) for Kori-3&4, KHNP has tried to conduct another Power Uprating projects for Hanbit (Younggwang)-1&2 and Hanul (Ulchin)-1&2. But, due to the issues of Public Acceptance (PA), these projects have been held to implement. If the atmosphere of PA for Power Uprating would be improved, these projects will be started again. To effectively manage major Systems, Structures, and Components (SSCs) and to reduce the maintenance cost of the operating nuclear power plants, Long Term Asset Management (LTAM) strategies based on equipment reliability processes (INPO AP-913) were developed in KHNP as a part of plant life management.

LTAM program settling is progressing to achieve its own goal through the continuous improvement and finding-out the issues regarding the process implementation of LTAM.

Continued Operation (License renewal)

The period of continued operation of nuclear power plants (NPPs) is ten years according to the current legal framework in the Republic of Korea. It is mandatory for the utility to conduct a Periodic Safety Review (PSR) for its operating NPPs every ten years and to submit PSR reports for the regulatory review and approval. The definition of Continued Operation (CO) is stated in the nuclear law enforcement ordinance and, under this legal statement, it is possible to extend a plant’s operation beyond its design lifetime. A enhanced PSR report, including a Lifetime Evaluation Report(LER) and Radiological Environment Report(RER), should be submitted by the utility to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology(MEST) in the CO application two to five years before the end of the original license period. The LER of the CO includes identifying the Systems, Structures, and Components (SSCs) within the scope of the CO, Aging Management Programs (AMPs) and Time Limited Aging Analyses (TLAAs). In June 2006, KHNP submitted the safety evaluation report for continued operation of Kori-1 to the MISP (then MEST) 2007 and MISP (then MEST) officially permitted continued operation on December 11, 2006. The safety evaluation report on Wolsong-1 was also submitted in December 2009 and Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) permitted continued operation on February 27, 2015.

According to the 7th Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand, which was finalized by MOTIE in July 2015, 8 units of APR 1400 and 4 units of APR+ will be constructed by 2029. Of which 4 units of APR 1400 are under construction.

Table 6. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

* Sites of last 2 units will be determined between Daejin and Cheonji in the licensing stage.

The APR1400 is a Generation III type light water reactor with a capacity of 1,400MWe developed on the basis of OPR1000. Unlike OPR1000 with 2 trains active type safety system, APR1400 has 4 trains active type safety system. It is expected to be ten times safer than OPR1000. The standard design of the APR1400 was certified by the Korean regulatory agency in May. Shin Kori-3 & 4 will be the first APR1400 plants and are now under construction at the site adjacent to the present Kori nuclear power station. They are scheduled to start commercial operation in 2016 and 2017, respectively.

The APR+ is a Generation III+ type of light water reactor with a capacity of 1,500MWe developed to enhance the safety feature and economic competitiveness on the basis of APR1400. Unlike APR1400, APR+ has active type safety system and passive type safety system. It is expected to be ten times safer than APR1400. The standard design of the APR+ was certified by the Korean regulatory agency in August 2014 and appraised as the new design concept with enhanced safety and economic competitiveness. Cheonji-1 & 2 will be the first APR+ plants scheduled to be online in 2026 and 2027, respectively.

In 1985, the Korean government made the landmark decision to implement a national self-reliance policy and allocated the roles and duties among the domestic nuclear organizations to streamline the nuclear power industry.

FIG 5. STRUCTURE OF NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY

Doosan Heavy Industry has taken part in plant manufacturing by virtue of its capability to supply heavy industrial construction equipment and machinery. KEPCO E&C was established in 1975 to foster the nation’s self-reliance in power technologies, particularly in nuclear power engineering for pressurized water reactors. KEPCO E&C has taken the prime architect engineer’s responsibility. KEPCO NF was established in November 1982 by joint investment of KEPCO and KAERI to localize the nuclear fuel fabrication for pressurized water reactors and PHWR reactors. NSSC/KINS conduct safety reviews and inspections of nuclear facilities or radiation facilities.

The technological self-reliance strategy has been applied since construction of HANBIT 3&4. Domestic nuclear industries became the projects’ prime contractors on the condition of technology support, guidance and then transfer from foreign subcontractors.

KHNP works to secure the reasonable sales price of electricity and reduce the cost of production in order to maximize retained earnings which can be used for future capital expenditure. To acquire additional funding, in the short-term, KHNP is issuing corporate bonds with diversified maturities to attract national and international investors.

In the long-term, KHNP is considering diverse arrangements like equity financing in addition to current debt financing to maintain financial soundness.

According to the 5th Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand, which was finalized by the MKE in December 2010, 68-c-km-long transmission lines for Shin Kori-1&2 and 172-c-km-long transmission lines for Shin Kori-3&4 will be added to the current grid.

LIST OF SELECTED NPPs SITES AND CHARACTERISTICS

In order to expand public acceptance, KHNP puts utmost effort in various activities in local support business, conflict management and social contribution works. Every year, survey regarding social contribution works is carried out among local residents around nuclear power plants. Criteria of survey are as follow; contribution in local economy, satisfaction in local co-operation, ecology engineering, public supports in nuclear use, safety credibility, and information release confidence. Results of the survey will be used as reference for policy making in continued operation of nuclear power plant and introduction of new nuclear power plant.

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the MSIP shall formulate the National Nuclear R&D Program according to a sector-by-sector implementation plan.

The Nuclear R&D Program, the so-called “National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Program,” is mainly implemented by the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), the Korea Institute of Radiological & Medical Sciences (KIRMS), and the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS). Additional industry-led R&D programs are implemented mainly by the Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. (KHNP), KEPCO Engineering & Construction Company, Inc. (KEPCO E&C), KEPCO Plant Service and Engineering CO., Ltd (KEPCO KPS), and KEPCO Nuclear Fuel (KNF).

The “National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Program” was launched in June 1992 as a 10-year (1992-2001) program. In 1997, the Korean government established the Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP), which includes the national policy on nuclear energy utilization and promotion and its sectoral tasks. As part of the plan, a national R&D program has been formulated every 5 years since 1997 to take into account the major changes in the R&D environment and the technological progress. As of June 2016, an updating of the 5th CNEPP for 2017-2021 is progressing. The national R&D program for the 5th CNEPP period will be formulated subsequently.

The national R&D Program focuses on five research fields: 1) advanced reactors and fuel; 2) nuclear safety; 3) radioactive waste management; 4) application of radiation and radioisotopes; and 5) fundamental technologies. A technology innovation project for operating NPPs has also been developed for the nuclear industry.

Projects for further development of advanced reactors and fuel cycle technology are progressing under the mid- and long-term nuclear R&D programs. As a near-term reactor option, the Korean Next Generation Reactor, which is called the APR1400, has been developed and is under construction. Building on the APR1400, the Advanced Power Reactor Plus with improved economy and safety is under development.

KAERI also developed the System-integrated Modular Advanced Reactor (SMART), which is used for electricity generation and seawater desalination, and is well suited for applications in countries where large-sized commercial power plants are infeasible and where water scarcity is a problem. The NSSC issued a Standard Design Approval for SMART in July 2012. A safety enhancement project has been carried out to design a fully passive safety system through validation tests since 2012. In preparation for the advent of the hydrogen era, research on the demonstration technology of economical nuclear hydrogen production is also underway. In the long term, to technically solve the problem of spent fuel accumulation, KAERI is developing proliferation-resistant SFR fuel cycle technology coupled with a sodium-cooled fast reactor and pyro-processing.

Even though the Republic of Korea has applied a “wait and see policy” for spent fuel management, several technological alternative studies on spent fuel management have been carried out. R&D activities on the disposal and treatment of radioactive wastes, as well as the decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities, are in progress.

Several research projects concerning radiation and radioisotopes, including the production of radioisotopes, have been or are being conducted for applications in various areas such as medicine, agriculture, food, and industry.

The international nuclear society has a common recognition of the expanded role of nuclear energy systems to cope with increasing energy demand and deal with climate change. International cooperative programs have been initiated for the development of new nuclear energy systems with significant improvements in safety, economics, resource reutilization, environmental friendliness, and proliferation resistance.

Korea has been actively participating in these programs. These programs include the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycle (INPRO), and the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC).

GIF is a co-operative international endeavour that was set up to carry out the research and development needed to establish the feasibility and performance capabilities of the next-generation nuclear energy systems. GIF has thirteen members who are signatories of its founding document, the GIF Charter, the goals of which are to provide the basis for identifying and selecting six nuclear energy systems for further development. Their designs include thermal and fast neutron spectra cores, and closed and open fuel cycles. The reactors range in size from very small to very large. Depending on their respective degree of technical maturity, the first Generation IV systems are expected to be deployed commercially in around 2030 to 2040. Korea has been a chartered member of GIF since 2000, and has played a significant role in the development of Gen-IV nuclear energy systems. The 41st Policy Group meeting held in Paris decided to designate the Korean PG delegate as the new Vice Chair (VC) of GIF, and to give an external GIF collaboration mission, which includes interactions with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) and their various initiatives or international projects. Korea can further expand its contributions to GIF in this regard. Since 2006, Korea has participated in the co-development of the Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) and Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR). In November 2015, Seoul National University (SNU) has concluded a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in the development of a Lead-cooled Fast Reactor (LFR). Korea has participated in various SFR projects including an Advanced Fuel Project, CD&BOP (Component Design and Balance-Of-Plant) Project, Safety and Operation Project, and SIA (System Integration and Assessment) Project, as well as a Hydrogen Production Project, High Temperature Material Project, Nuclear Fuel Project, and CMVB (Computational Method Validation and Benchmark) Project in the VHTR

INPRO was initiated in 2000 for the purpose of jointly considering the international actions required to achieve the desired innovations in nuclear reactors and fuel cycles. Currently, thirty-nine countries are members of INPRO, and Korea has been a member since 2001. INPRO has investigated the role of nuclear energy in the 21st century for sustainable development and determined the requirements and criteria for innovative technologies for nuclear fuel cycles and nuclear power. Korea coordinated the activities for developing the criteria for proliferation resistance of nuclear reactors and fuel systems and participated in case studies for the examination of innovative nuclear energy technologies against the criteria and requirements. In addition, Korea has participated in the INPRO Collaborative Projects (CPs) which are addressing technical issues. Korea played a leading role in moving forward the project on Proliferation Resistance, Acquisition/Diversion Analysis (PRADA), for attaining the security of future nuclear energy systems and is participating in new CPs such as Proliferation Resistance and Safeguardability Assessment (PROSA), Synergetic Nuclear Energy Regional Group Interactions Evaluated for Sustainability (SYNERGIES).A Korean expert leads the Task 4 of INPRO(Policy and Dialogue) and contributes to facilitate the exchange of information among INPRO member countries and to integrate national activities of various issues surrounding nuclear energy, while also participating in the INPRO/GIF Joint Meetings to discuss recent developments and the relationship between INPRO and GIF.

The Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) was launched in February 2006 as an international cooperation regime, and is intended to support the expansion of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes worldwide in a safe and secure manner, and to reduce the risk of nuclear proliferation. GNEP changed its name to the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC) in June 2010 to focus on international cooperation activities to address challenges facing nuclear energy. This framework provides a forum for cooperation among participating states to ensure the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. To date, 33 nations have joined as participants, and 31 nations and four international organizations (the IAEA, GIE, Euratom, and NEA) have been participating as observers. In IFNEC, there are the following operational structures: the Executive Committee, Steering Group, and Working Group. IFNEC members set up two expert-based Working Groups: the Reliable Nuclear Fuel Services Working Group and the Nuclear Infrastructure Development Working Group. Korea joined GNEP in 2007 and has been sharing its knowledge and experience in infrastructure development including human resource development, radioactive waste management, small and medium-sized reactors (SMRs), financing options, and public acceptance in identifying infrastructure requirements for the member countries in their plans to introduce a nuclear program. In addition, Korea has participated in discussions on a multilateral disposal approach to explore economical and attractive solutions for spent fuel management. Korea hosted the 5th IFNEC Executive Committee meeting held in October 2014 in Seoul. At this annual meeting, representatives from 36 countries and International Organizations addressed issues relevant to IFNEC activities to explore mutually beneficial approaches for the peaceful use of nuclear energy in a manner that meets the highest standards of safety, security, and non-proliferation.

The Nuclear International Cooperation Council (NICC) has been founded in 2013. The council has 14 member organizations from industry sector, R&D sector and governmental sectors. NICC member organizations cooperate with each other for exchanging information and planning new joint projects on international cooperative activities as well as monitoring the national nuclear international cooperation policy on a long term basis.

Prior to the establishment of the NSSC in October 2011, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) was responsible for comprehensive regulation on overall nuclear safety while the Ministry of Knowledge and Economy (MKE) was focusing on promoting nuclear energy.

After the Fukushima Daiichi accident, however, a discussion started in earnest to establish an independent commission to take care of nuclear safety. As a result, on October 26th, 2011, Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) was founded as an independent presidential commission, a regulatory body for nuclear safety responsible for nuclear safety, security, and non-proliferation.

When the new administration was inaugurated in Korea in February 2013, there was a sweeping change in the government organizational structure. As a part of such change, the NSSC was placed under the Prime Minister's Office from President. Since then, as illustrated in FIG 9, the NSSC has been responsible for nuclear safety regulation including licensing and permit of nuclear installations and nuclear industry while the Ministry of Industry while Trade and Resources being responsible for the promotion of nuclear industry and the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning for nuclear research and development.

Under the regulatory framework of nuclear safety of Korea, in accordance with the Act on Establishment and Operation of the Nuclear Safety and Security Commission, the NSSC takes the responsibility and function on regulatory and administrative activities for nuclear safety, which include the utilization of reactors and related facilities, fuel cycle facilities, radioactive waste disposal facilities, nuclear materials, and radioactive isotopes/radiation generator. Nuclear Safety Act (NSA) stipulates that the NSSC has the full authority and sole responsibility when it comes to the safety regulation on the nuclear installation.

In addition, for effective nuclear safety regulation on technical areas, the government added two provisions in the NSA; Article 5 (Nuclear Safety-Specialized Institution) and Article 6 (Establishment of the Korea Institute of Nuclear Nonproliferation and Control). It also enacted a special act entitled as “Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety Act.” These legislative actions became a firm legal basis to establish the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) responsible for nuclear safety regulations including review and inspection as well as the Korea Institute of Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Control (KINAC) for the nuclear security and safeguards.

There is Korea Foundation of Nuclear Safety, specialized in supporting pre-cautionary control for nuclear and radiation safety.

FIG 7. Government Organization on Nuclear Safety

The licensing procedures for nuclear installations consist of two steps: the Construction Permit (CP) and the Operating License (OL), pursuant to the NSA. When necessary, licensee may apply for Standard Design Approval and the early site approval (FIG 10).

FIG 8. Licensing Process for Nuclear Installations

Table 1 shows the energy reserves of Korea as of the end of 2014.

Table 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m3; Uranium: Metric tons;

Hydro (supply capacity), Renewables (generating capacity): TW

Source: Korea Resources Corporation (http://www.kores.or.kr/),

Korea National Oil Corporation (http://www.knoc.co.kr/ENG),

Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng),

New & Renewable Energy Statistics (Korea Energy Management Corporation, http://www.kemco.or.kr/new_eng)

Table 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

* Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.

** Solid fuels include coal, lignite, etc.

Source: Korea Energy Statistics Information System (http://www.kesis.net/)