The Russian Federation is a presidential republic. The President is the head of state and is elected directly by the people. He controls all the three branches of power. The President can even dissolve the Duma, if he doesn't agree with its suggestions three times running. The President has his administration, but it is not part of the Federal Government. The President is involved in the work of the legislative and executive branches.

The Federal Assembly represents the legislative branch of power. It is comprised of the two houses, the Federation Council and the State Duma, which make laws. The Federal Assembly is also called the Parliament, but that is not its official name. Both chambers are headed by chairmen, sometimes called speakers. The Duma consists of 450 deputies (one half elected personally by the population, while the other half consists of deputies who are appointed by their parties after voting). The members of the Federation Council are elected on a different basis. There are two representatives of each subject of the RF (89 subjects). Every law must be approved by the State Duma and the Council of Federation and signed by the President. The President can veto laws passed by the Federal Assembly, but it can pass laws despite the President's veto with a two-thirds majority.

The Federal Government represents the executive branch of power. The President appoints its head, the Chairman of the Government, but the Duma must approve his appointment.

Russia is a large country occupying the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia. In the north, the country is bounded by the Arctic Ocean, while Finland is its farthest northwest neighbour. In the west and southwest, the country is surrounded by the newly independent states, the former republics of the Soviet Union⁽¹⁾. In the south and southeast, Russia has a common border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China and Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The eastern border of the country is the Pacific Ocean, where, Japan and the US state of Alaska are the nearest neighbours.

The total area of Russia is about 17,075 thousand km2. The country consists of a large number of administrative units: regions (provinces) and republics. The regions of the country differ widely in territory, natural conditions, structure and national composition of the population, and economic development. The climate of country is marked by very wide regional variations. A significant part of north-eastern Russia falls within the Frigid Zone, while the Black Sea region has semitropical conditions.

Russia is abundant in energy resources of various kinds. The energy sector is a well-developed and important part of the national economy, producing about 10% of national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In total, up to 95% of the country's energy consumption is met by fossil fuels. Despite its rich oil, gas and coal potential, Russia was one of the first countries to master nuclear energy for peaceful uses. In 1954, the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant was commissioned and connected to the grid.

According to the latest statistics, the population of Russia amounts to about 143 million

(Table 1). The average population density is approximately 8.4 inhabitants/km2. This number greatly varies throughout the country, from more than 100 inhabitants/km2, for some regions in the European part of Russia, to less than one, for large territories in Siberia and the far northeast. The population after decline in the 1990s is slightly declining but the rate of decline is slowing.

TABLE 1. POPULATION INFORMATION

Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database,

Country Information, http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat/rosstatsite.eng/

The population decreased at an average of 0.1% annually between 2000 and 2013. Despite the total population decrease the urban population is increasing.

Russia has undergone significant changes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, moving from a globally-isolated, centrally-planned economy to a more market-based and globally-integrated economy. Economic reforms in the 1990s privatized most industry, with notable exceptions in the energy and defence-related sectors.

As a result of reforms the gross domestic product (GDP) and the GDP/capita has registered significant increase. The average rate of growth was 9% annually during the period 2000-2012.

In 2012, Russia became the world's leading oil producer, surpassing Saudi Arabia. Russia is the second-largest producer of natural gas, and holds the world's largest natural gas reserves, the second-largest coal reserves and the eighth-largest crude oil reserves. Russia is the third-largest exporter of both steel and primary aluminium.

The historical data of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) values are presented in Table 2. Figure 1 shows the GDP structure in 2012.

TABLE 2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

* PPP: Purchasing Power Parity

Source: Russia in figures, Country Information, Summary Statistical Transactions,

http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat/rosstatsite.eng/

GDP growth in the next three years is expected to reach 2%

Source: Russia in figures, Country Information, Summary Statistical Transactions,

http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat/rosstatsite.eng/

Fig.1. Gross Domestic Product structure in 2012

Energy reserves are shown in Table 3. Fossil fuels form the basis for the Russian energy sector.

TABLE 3. ESTIMATED ENERGY RESERVES

* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m³; Uranium: Metric tons; Hydro, Renewable: TW h, for a period of 10 years.

Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Base; Country Information.

Table 4 gives the historical energy data. The share of nuclear energy in the energy consumption is less 2%. Hydro energy is the only meaningful renewable energy resource in Russia. The share of hydro energy in the energy consumption is also less 2%.

TABLE 4. ENERGY STATISTICS (EJ)

⁽¹⁾ Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.

⁽²⁾ Solid fuels include coal, lignite and commercial wood.

Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Country Information.

The Energy policy of Russia is contained in an Energy Strategy document, which sets out policy for the period up to 2020. In 2000, the Russian government approved the main provisions of the Russian energy strategy to 2020, and in 2003, the new Russian energy strategy was confirmed by the government. The Energy Strategy document outlines several main priorities: an increase in energy efficiency, reducing impact on the environment, sustainable development, energy development and technological development, as well as improved effectiveness and competitiveness.

The aims of the structural policy of the energy sector for the next 10-15 years include:

• enhancement of the efficiency of natural gas utilization and an increase in its share of domestic consumption, especially in ecologically strained regions

• in-depth processing and comprehensive utilization of hydrocarbon raw materials

• enhancement of coal quality, as well as the stabilization of coal production volumes

• intensification of local and renewable energy resource development (hydro and wind power, peat, etc.)

• prioritizing electricity generation development, based on competitive and ecologically clean power plants

• safety and reliability enhancement of the first generation NPPs and development of new, advanced nuclear power plants

The new technological energy policy is oriented towards:

• radical enhancement of both the cost effectiveness and energy efficiency of all stages of the extraction, conversion, distribution, and utilization of energy resources

• effective decentralization of the energy supply

• ecological and accident safety, as well as the reliability of the energy supply

• development of qualitatively new technologies for the stable evolution of the power industry: ecologically clean coal-fired power plants, safe nuclear power plants, efficient processes for the utilization of new sources of power, etc.

Regional energy policy takes into account the existing principal differences in energy supply conditions and in the structures of the fuel resources of various parts of Russia. Regional energy self-governing and self-consistency is envisaged as a major challenge, i.e., the sustaining of the unified national energy sector through the development of federal energy systems, involving electricity, gas and oil supply networks.

Pricing and taxation constitute the core of the new energy policies. The liberalisation of oil, petroleum products and coal prices, which was undertaken in mid-1993, was not extended to the products of the so-called natural monopolies: natural gas, electric power, and heat from centralised sources. Prices for these energy sources are currently set by the federal regional government agencies responsible for the functions of the fuel and energy sector.

The creation of a competitive environment within the fuel and energy sector of the national economy will be directed towards reducing production costs and increasing the quality of energy-related services. This will be accomplished though industry denationalisation, primarily through the joint-stock companies.

A system of incentives and conditions for the conservation of energy, as well as the increase in energy production efficiency, is needed in order to realize Russia’s vast potential for energy conservation.

Economic policies will focus on the promotion of investment activities.

Transmission and Distribution Sector.

There are seven separate regional power systems in the Russian electricity sector: Northwest, Centre, Middle Volga, North Caucasus, Urals, Siberia, and Far East. The Far East region is the only one not connected to an integrated power system. Unified Energy System, which is 52% owned by the Russian government (Gazprom now has a 10% stake), controls most of the transmission and distribution in Russia. UES owns 96% of the transmission and distribution system, the central dispatch unit, and the federal wholesale electricity market (FOREM).

Unified Energy System

The UNIFIED ENERGY SYSTEM of RUSSIA (UESR) is a unique system which creates significant economic benefits for both the Russian people and Russia's industry. The technical basis of UES of Russia is comprised of:

• 440 electric power stations with a total installed capacity of 223 thousand MW, including 25.2 thousand MW at nuclear power stations, which produced 1,032 billion kW·h of power in 2012

• a total of 3.018 million km of electric power lines

• a supply regulation system that physically unites all power installations with a single 50 Hz current frequency

The organisational basis of UES of Russia is comprised of:

• RAO UESR, which acts as a central locus that implements the functioning and development criteria established by the government, based on effectiveness, and provides operational supply management aimed at increasing economic efficiency at UESR

• 74 power suppliers that supply electric and heat power to consumers throughout the Russian Federation

• 34 large electric power stations that operate independently on the federal (national) wholesale electric power market

• over 300 organisations providing technological back up and development for UES of Russia, and which ensure the viability of the industry as a whole

Privatization and Electricity Market Reform

The restructuring of Russia's power generation sector was completed in July 1, 2008, when state monopoly RAO UESR was dissolved. The country's transmission grid remained under state control. The reform has created a generating sector divided into multiple wholesale electricity companies (commonly called OGKs), which participate in a new competitive wholesale market.

The main participants of wholesale market are:

• Thermal wholesale generation companies (6);

• Atomic generation company;

• Hydro generation company;

• Other generation companies;

• Federal grid company;

• Trading operator;

• System operator.

Electricity Exports

Russia exports significant quantities of electricity to the countries of the former Soviet Union, as well as to China, Poland, Turkey and Finland. UESR also has plans to export electricity to Iran, and possibly to Afghanistan and Pakistan, from two hydroelectric stations it is currently building in Tajikistan. There are currently two efforts underway to integrate the Russian and Western European electricity grids. UESR is participating in the Baltrel program, designed to create an energy ring of power companies in the Baltic States. The Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), of which 20 European countries are members, has also entered into discussions with Russian colleagues over the technological and operational aspects of interconnecting their systems. Export electricity from Russia in 2013 is equal 18,4 billion kW·h.

Table 5 shows the historical electricity production data and installed capacities, and Table 6 the energy-related ratios.

TABLE 5. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Russia in figures, Summary Statistical Transactions.

TABLE 6. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

(1) Net import/Total energy consumption

Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Russia in figures, Summary Statistical Transactions.

Figure 2 shows the structure of the nuclear industry in Russia.

http://www.rosatom.ru/en/about/nuclear_industry/Industry_structure/

Fig. 2. Structure of Nuclear Industry in Russia

Today Russian nuclear industry constitutes a powerful complex of over 250 enterprises and organizations employing over 250 thousand people. Industry structure includes four large-scale research and production complexes: enterprises of nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear power engineering, nuclear weapons application, and research institutes. JSC Atomenergoprom, which consolidates the civilian part of the nuclear industry, is a part of Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation. ROSATOM unites a number of enterprises of nuclear power engineering, as well as of nuclear and radiation safety, nuclear weapons complex, and fundamental research.Atomenergoprom is part of Rosatom State Nuclear Power Corporation. Atomenergoprom produces a wide range of nuclear and non-nuclear products, as well as providing full service in the area of nuclear power engineering. In particular, the company provides design and turn-key construction of a nuclear power plant, fuel supplies for the whole operation life of  N-plant, upgrading and maintenance, as well as personnel training. The company structure consists of divisions formed according to the basic segments of the nuclear fuel cycle:

• uranium production

• uranium conversion and enrichment

• nuclear fuel production

• nuclear and power machine engineering

• design, engineering and construction of nuclear power plants 

• power generation at nuclear power plants 

In addition, Atomenergoprom’s structure includes enterprises offering products and services in the following areas:

• nuclear power plant maintenance and upgrading

• nuclear power plant personnel training

• isotopes 

• scientific and research companies and design offices 

• non-nuclear products and services

Figure 3 shows the map of Russian nuclear power plants. Table 7 shows the current status of Russia’s nuclear power plants.

Russia's nuclear plants, with 33 operating reactors totaling 24,164 MWe, comprise:

• 4 first generation VVER-440-similar pressurized water reactors,

• 2 second generation VVER-440 pressurized water reactors,

• 11 third generation VVER-1000 pressurized water reactors with a full containment structure, mostly V-320 types,

• 13 RBMK light water graphite reactors now unique to Russia. The four oldest of these were commissioned in the 1970s at Kursk and Leningrad, and are of some concern to the Western world.

• 4 small graphite-moderated BWR reactors in eastern Siberia constructed in the 1970s for cogeneration (EGP-6 models on linked map).

• One BN-600 fast-breeder reactor.

Fig. 3. Map of Russian Nuclear Power Plants

TABLE 7. STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

2012 became a record year for electricity production in Russia - 177.3 billion kWh (2.7% more than in 2011). This result was achieved due to commercial operation of new units and increasing of the capacity factor. By the end of 2013 electricity production totaled 172 billion kWh. Table 7A shows the operational facts of the NPPs in 2013.

TABLE 7A. PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN 2013

The lifetime extension activities at the operation units of NPPs were initiated pursuant to the Programme of development of nuclear power industry in the Russian Federation in 1998-2005 and the period up to 2010 approved by the RF Government Decree ? 815 of 21.07.1998. The long term programme of activities of the Rosatom state atomic energy corporation for the period 2009-2015 approved by RF Government Decree ? 705 of 20.09.2008 calls for lifetime extension of operational nuclear power units. As of 2011, lifetime extension projects were accomplished for the following 15 power units with the total rate power 8,362 MW : Novovoronezh NPP Unit 3 and 4 (VVR-440),Kola NPP Unit 1 and 2 (VVR-440), Leningrad NPP Units 1-4 (RBMK-100), Kursk NPP Unit 1 and 2 (RBMK-100), Bilibino Npp Units 1-4 (EGP-6), Beloyarsk NPP Unit 3 (BN-600).

As a result of the accomplish large scale renovation, safety performance of the aforementioned units increased substantially, having reached the levels consistent with the applicable requirements of domestic regulatory documents (OPB 88/97) and IAEA recommendations for the NPP built to earlier standards. The possibility of safe operation of the 15 units beyond the originally assigned lifetime (over 15 additional years) has been demonstrated. Long term operating licenses were properly obtained from Rostekhnadzor, allowing operation of the units beyond the originally assigned lifetime. Based on the modern level of knowledge and regulatory requirements, the 15-years additional operation period is justified in terms of the residual life of the critical components (reactor vessel for VVER units and graphite stock for RBMK units). The results of assessments of economic efficiency of the NPP power unit life time extension projects are indicative of their commercial viability and high returns on investments. Implementation of such projects is quite an efficient financial investment provide that unconditional priority is given to ensuring safety of such units during the extended period of operation.

The July 2012 Energy Ministry plan confirmed the scheduled closure of ten reactors at Kola, Novovoronezh, Leningrad and Bilibino. However, Leningrad unit 1 was shut down in May 2012 due to deformation of the graphite moderator, and a decision is due in November 2013 on whether to fix or decommission it. Any repair will involve replacement of up to 350 fuel channels.

The Beloyarsk-3 BN-600 fast neutron reactor in Zarechny municipality of Sverdlovsk Region has been upgraded and prepared for 15-year life extension, to 2025. Its licence has been renewed to 2020. It achieved 30 years of operation to late 2011, producing 114 billion kWh with capacity factor of 76%. Due to progressive modification, its fuel burn up has increased from 7% (design value) to 11.4%. It provides heat for Zarechny town as well.

Rosatom's initial proposal for a rapid expansion of nuclear capacity was based on the cost effectiveness of completing the 9 GWe of then partially-built plants. To get the funds, Rosatom offered Gazprom the opportunity to invest in some of the partly-completed nuclear plants. The argument was that the US$ 7.3 billion required for the whole 10 GWe (including the just-completed Rostov 1) would be quickly recouped from gas exports if the new nuclear plant reduced the need to burn that gas domestically. In September 2006, Rosatom announced a target of nuclear power plants providing 23% of electricity by 2020, thus commissioning two 1,200 MWe plants per year from 2011 to 2014, and then three per year until 2020. In July 2009, a revised federal target program (FTP) for 2010-2015 and until 2020 was approved and signed by the President. Projected federal budget funding was reduced to RUR 110 billion ($3.5 billion), for 2010. The FTP program envisages a 25-30% nuclear share in electricity supply by 2030, 45-50% in 2050 and 70-80% by the end of century.

TABLE 8. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: VVER-1200 is the reactor portion of the AES-2006 nuclear power plant. Rostov is also known as Volgodonsk. 

After the Fukushima accident, checks were made on Russian nuclear plants. Following these, in mid June 2011 Rosenergoatom announced a RUR 15 billion ($530 million) safety upgrade program for additional power and water supply back-up. Rosenergoatom spent RUR 2.6 billion on 66 mobile diesel generator sets, 35 mobile pumping units and 80 other pumps.

The FTP programme is based on VVER technology, at least until roughly 2030. It highlights the goal of moving to fast neutron reactors and a closed fuel cycle, for which Rosatom proposed two options. The first is to select a fast neutron reactor with lead coolant as the basic technology, and to mobilize all available resources for this exclusively. This is expected to cost RUR 110 billion, mostly from the federal budget. The second option also provides for development of fast neutron reactors, cooled by sodium and lead-bismuth, with the related engineering designs of such reactors and closed fuel cycle technologies to be in place no later than 2014. A detailed design should be developed for the construction of a multi-purpose fast neutron research reactor (MBIR) by then also. This second option is designed to attract more funds aside from the federal budget allocation, and is the option favored by Rosatom.

In mid-2009, the Russian government said that it would provide more than RUR 120 billion (about US$3.89 billion) over 2010 to 2012 for a new programme devoted to R&D on the next generation of nuclear power plants. It identified three priorities for the nuclear industry: improving the performance of light water reactors over the next two or three years, developing a closed fuel cycle based on deployment of fast reactors in the medium term, and developing nuclear fusion over the long term.

In February 2010, the government announced that Rosenergoatom’s investment programme for 2010 amounted to RUR 163.3 billion, of which RUR 53 billion would come from the federal budget. Of the total cost, RUR 101.7 billion is for nuclear plant construction, almost half of which is to come from Rosenergoatom’s funds. It includes the reactors listed below as under construction, as well as Leningrad II-2 and the Baltic plant. In March, Rosatom said that it now intended to commission three new reactors per year from 2016.

In March 2011, the State Duma’s energy committee recommended construction of Kursk II with standard VVER-TOI reactors and the updating of FTP plans to have Units 1 and 2 put on line in 2020 and 2023. Rosatom was told to start engineering surveys for Kursk II in 2011. The committee has said that unit 1 must be in service by the time the first RBMK unit of phase I is closed, in order to ensure adequate supply to Moscow. 

The Russian Power Grid is the world's largest highly automated complex to generate, transmit, and distribute electric power and also to control these processes on a day-to-day basis. The power industry in Russia developed stepwise, by incorporating regional power systems, working in parallel, and forming interregional electric power pools, which merged to form a single Power Grid. The nation's Power Grid started to evolve as soon as the GOELRO plan was launched. Russia's Power Grid, the main component of the national power industry, is a complex network of power plants and mains, which have the same operating mode and centralized dispatching control. The transition to this form of organization of the power industry made it possible to make the most of power resources and to raise the economy and reliability of energy supply to both economy and population.

The control of this immense, synchronously operating system, which reaches 7 000 km west to east and over 3000 km north to south, is a very complex engineering task, which has no analogues anywhere in the world. Also, in its more than 40 years in operation, the Russian Power Grid has accumulated a wealth of experience in the reliable and efficient supply of quality energy to users. Of the total 74 power networks, the Power Grid of Russia comprises 69 power networks. Of the seven Integrated Power Systems (IPSs) six work in parallel as part of the Power Grid: the Center, Middle Volga, Urals, Northwest, North Caucasus, and Siberia IPSs. The East IPS operates separately from the Siberia IPS. Working in parallel with the Russian Power Grid are the power systems of Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Republic of Moldova, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, and, through the insertion of direct current, the power system of Finland.

Placement of nuclear power plants in Russia performs accordance with resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation on October 17, 2009 ? 823 "On schemes for long-term development of electric power"

Basic Principles of the schemes and programs for long-term electric power development are next:

• Efficiency,

• application of new technological solutions,

• coordination of schemes and programs of long-term development of electric power and the subjects ofelectricity,

• publicity and openness of public investment strategies and solutions.

Unfavorable for the placement of NPP must be territory of active volcanoes, territory to be exposed to tsunamis, floods, catastrophic floods.

ROSATOM's comprehensive offerings include PR solutions that make it possible to obtain public acceptance of nuclear power viewed as a cornerstone of stability in the nuclear industry around the globe. ROSATOM adheres to principles of transparency, raising public awareness of Russian nuclear operations. This approach enables us to secure general public consensus (according to a survey conducted in 2013 by the Levada Analytical Centre, 71.5% of Russians support the continued development of nuclear power).

The reprocessing option is the chosen method for dealing with spent reactor fuel, with the exception of spent fuel originating from RBMKs, which should be disposed of. Rosatom operates the RT-1 Plant in Chelyabinsk for reprocessing fuel from WWER plants’ capacity for WWER 440 fuel is 400 t HM/a. The construction of a second reprocessing plant (RT-2) at Krasnoyarsk, which has a first line design capacity of 800 t HM/a, has been postponed indefinitely. Reprocessed uranium is used for RBMK fuel production. Plutonium obtained at RT-1 is temporarily stored on-site in dioxide form. Rosatom operates several wet AFR fuel storage facilities at RT-1 and RT-2, and at several nuclear power plants, with a total capacity of about 16,000 t HM/a.

Fundamental Research

• Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow

• Institute of High Energy Physics, Protvino

• Institute of Innovation and Thermonuclear Research, Troitsk

These are major nuclear industry research centres that carry out extensive fundamental theoretical and experimental investigations into the properties of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, plasma and laser physics, thermonuclear fusion, development of new types of accelerator and reactor technology, and into developing equipment and facilities for physical research.

Applied Research and Development (R&D)

• The Russian Scientific Centre (RSC) “Kurchatov Institute”, Moscow

• The State Scientific Centre “Institute of Physics and Power Engineering” (SSC FEI), Obninsk

• The State Scientific Centre "All-Russian Inorganic Materials Research Institute" (SSC VNIINM), Moscow

• The State Scientific Centre Nuclear Reactor Research Institute (SSC NIIAR), Dimitrovgrad

• Research and Development Institute of Power Engineering (NIKIET), Moscow

These are all major scientific centres in the field of nuclear science and technology. Theoretical and experimental research, performed at these institutes on nuclear and particle physics, neutron physics, thermophysics, hydraulics, material science and nuclear safety, has received world-wide recognition.

The All-Russian Research Institute for Nuclear Power Plant Operation (VNIIAES), of Moscow, is the scientific centre for Russian nuclear operating organizations. Principal attention is paid to assuring safe operation of the 1^st and 2^nd generation nuclear power plants.

Major reactor and NSSS design and research

• Experimental Design Bureau "Gidropress" (OKB GP), Podolsk

• Experimental Design Bureau of Machine Building (OKBM), Nizhny Novgorod

The leading 3^rd generation medium- and large-scale power units of improved safety now include advanced WWER 1000 (for domestic market and export), WWER 1500 (replacement of the 1^st generation units and capacity growths), BN-800 (for plutonium utilization and solving of environmental problem) and BREST (nuclear technology of the 4^th generation).

Rosatom of Russia co-operates with other countries in many fields of activities, for example:

• nuclear physics

• fundamental research into matter properties

• controlled thermonuclear fusion

• physics of semiconductors and high-temperature superconductivity

• isotopes

• technologies of elementary particle accelerators and electrophysical equipment

• atomic energy generation and nuclear fuel cycle

• radioactive waste management

• environment protection

Rosatom’s scientists and researchers are engaged in a wide range of studies, conducted by the various international centers for nuclear research, that is, the European Organization of Nuclear Research (CERN), the National Accelerator Laboratory and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Russia participates in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor quadripartite project. Rosatom scientists and engineers participate actively in both national and the international symposia, seminars and conferences. Rosatom of Russia is engaged in the intensive sharing and exchange of information at a bilateral level and through the International Nuclear Information System (INIS). Within the Rosatom structure there is a special Institute (Atominform), merging all information flows of the industry and dealing with the problems associated with protection of Rosatom’s rights to the objects of intellectual property resulting from activities financed by the Ministry, as well as legal aspects of the transfer of these rights to third parties.

Recently, the problems of spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, of NPP safety and of environment protection have been gaining in importance. Russia co-operates with the US Department of Energy to establish the International Center of Ecological Safety in Russia (Rosatom of Russia) and in the USA (the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory). Co-operation started in 1993, in management of spent nuclear fuel and of radioactive waste and in co-operation in rehabilitation of contaminated territories at the northwest of the Russian Federation with Norway, the European Commission, France, Sweden and USA, and these initiatives are still in progress. In 1998, through the Minatom initiative, Russia began to co-operate with France and Germany to construct reactor EPR in Russia. The joint working–group was formed, including experts from Minatom, Framatome and Siemens Company. The European Commission, rendering technical assistance on a gratuitous basis within the frameworks of TACIS Program, is one of the leading western partners. In 1998, the implementation of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) between Russia and the European Union was started. Throughout recent years, Russia has taken part in activities in compliance with the Agreement on ISTC.

Extensive activities to tackle problems of non-proliferation and safe dismantling of the Russian nuclear weapons and of weapons-grade plutonium and uranium conversion are in progress. For example, throughout 1994-1997, research and development activities to fabricate uranium-plutonium fuel for CANDU reactors from weapons-grade plutonium were carried out in co-operation with Canada. In 1999, Russia continued co-operation with Germany, United Kingdom, Japan, Italy and France, with US participation, to ensure safe dismantling of nuclear weapons within the frameworks of the intergovernmental agreements on rendering assistance to Russia. At present, the joint Russian-US efforts are focussed on decommissioning of weapons-grade plutonium production reactors. In 1999, a draft Intergovernmental Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Netherlands on co-operation in safe dismantling of nuclear weapons in the Russian Federation and in utilization of removed nuclear-powered submarines was elaborated.

By convention, the designing, mounting and commissioning of NPPs and large-scale production installations at the territories of the CIS and of the other countries form essential part of the international co-operation of Rosatom of Russia. Ukraine and Kazakhstan are the most active partners of Russia. A draft Agreement on co-operation in nuclear fuel cycle has been elaborated and coordinated recently with Ukraine. Activities to complete construction and to put into operation the Rovno and the Khmelnitsky NPPs are in progress. Russia supplies nuclear fuel to Ukraine, and transports spent nuclear fuel out of the country. Russia co-operates with Kazakhstan in production of nuclear fuel and in other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. An NPP is planned to be constructed on the territory of Kazakhstan.

Rosatom co-operates with China, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Cuba, India, Syria and Egypt in construction and operation of NPPs and large-scale production installations. We can note certain progress in the Russian-Japanese relations.

Russia takes part in the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). The objective of INPRO is to support the safe, sustainable, economic and proliferation-resistant use of nuclear technology to meet the global energy needs of the 21st century. INPRO provides an open international forum for studying the nuclear power option and associated requirements, and its potential application in IAEA Member States. INPRO helps to make adequate competence available for the development and deployment of Innovative Nuclear Energy Systems (INSs), and helps to assist Member States in the coordination of related collaborative projects.

The Russian Federal Supervision of Nuclear and Radiological Safety (Gosatomnadzor) is the Nuclear Regulatory Body of the Russian Federation, with the headquarters in Moscow and seven regional offices throughout the country.

The following regulations determine the procedure for nuclear power plant licensing:

• Regulations on the order of special permission, issued by Gosatomnadzor of Russia for examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-12-94.

• Regulations on arranging and carrying out examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-13-94.

• Regulations on the order of issuing of special temporary permissions for designing nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-14-94.

The stages of obtaining the temporary permission (license) for NPP unit operation can be represented in brief:

1. License demand (submission of application documents)

2. Gosatomnadzor decision on the demand control

3. Analysis of substantiating materials of demand

4. Inspection at the NPP

5. Conclusion on substantiating materials examination

6. Conclusion on NPP inspection

7. General conclusion on obtaining temporary permission (license)

8. License (temporary permission)