Power projects are reviewed and approved by the State Council of the People's Republic of China (central government, hereinafter called “the State Council”) and competent departments of investment under the State Council and under local governments. Additional conditions to be met include the following ⁽²⁾:

1. Hydropower plants: Projects with a single station, total installed capacity of 500 MW and above, and constructed on transboundary rivers and inter-provincial rivers are examined and approved by the department in charge of investment under the State Council, of which projects with a single station, total installed capacity of 3000 MW and above or involving the move of 10 000 people or more are examined and approved by the State Council. All other projects are examined and approved by the competent departments of investment under local governments.

2. Pumped storage power stations: Examined and approved by the competent departments of investment under government at the provincial level.

3. Thermal power plants: Examined and approved by the competent departments of investment at the provincial level, among which coal fired thermal power projects are examined and approved within the framework of the State’s construction plan.

4. Cogeneration power plants: Examined and approved by the competent departments of investment under local governments, among which extraction and condensing, coal fired, thermal power projects are examined and approved by the government at the provincial level within the framework of the State’s construction plan.

5. Wind power stations: Examined and approved by the competent departments of investment under local governments within the framework of the State’s construction plan and the annual development guidance.

6. NPPs: Examined and approved by the State Council.

7. Power grid projects: The DC projects of ±500 kV and above as well as the AC projects of 500 kV, 750 kV and 1000 kV which are transnational and inter-provincial (autonomous region and municipality) are examined and approved by the department in charge of investment under the State Council, of which DC projects of ±800 kV and above and AC projects of 1000 kV are put on file to the State Council. All other projects are examined and approved by the competent departments of investment under local governments, among which DC projects of ±800 kV and above and AC projects of 1000 kV are examined and approved according to the State’s plan.

Since China implemented the electrical power system reform in 2002, the power industry has broken away from the restrictions of an exclusive power supply system. The centralized planning system has been fundamentally changed, and the problems of mixed operations of government and enterprises and of generation and grid systems have been solved. A market system with diversified competitors has been introduced into the electrical power sector, though some problems still exist that require further reforms. The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China proposed that monopoly industries, where the state capital remains the controlling share, should implement reforms with separation of government from enterprise, separation of government and capital, franchise operation and government supervision as the main tasks. In broadening the reform of the electric power system, the focus will be on the following:

1. Power transmission and distribution as scheduled;

2. Opening the power distribution and sales business as scheduled;

3. Expanding the plan for power generation and consumption;

4. Pushing the relatively independent and standardized operation of business forward;

5. Deepening the regional grid construction and the study of power transmission and distribution systems applicable to China;

6. Further strengthening government supervision;

7. Further strengthening unified planning of electric power;

8. Further strengthening safe and highly efficient power operation and reliable power supply.

The State Council issued the Plans Regarding the Restructuring of the Power Industry in 2002, which laid out the four step reform of separating the management of power plants from that of the power grid, separating subsidiary grid systems from the main grid systems, separating the management of power transmission from that of power distribution and putting power on the grid through price competition. The electric power structure and related organizations of China are as follows ⁽³⁾:

1. The National Energy Administration (NEA) is the competent monitoring and supervising department of the power and grid enterprises in China.

2. The five national power generation groups in China are all authorized by the State Council:

3. China Huaneng Group;

4. China Datang Corporation;

5. China Huadian Corporation;

6. China Energy Investment Corporation (CHN Energy);

7. State Power Investment Corporation (SPIC).

8. China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) and the China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN) own mostly NPPs via shareholding, and the China Three Gorges Corporation constructed and operates some hydroelectric power plants.

9. The two companies responsible for the operation of the national power grid are the State Grid Corporation of China and China Southern Power Grid. With all power networks state owned, there are six trans-provincial networks and one regional network on the mainland for transmission of the generated electricity. The Power Construction Corporation of China and the China Energy Engineering Group are two corporations, for the electric power industry that were founded in 2011. Their business scope includes power planning and engineering service, infrastructure projects, investment, equipment manufacturing and etc.

10. Key state owned enterprises offering power engineering and consulting services include the following:

• China Power Engineering Consulting Group Corporation;

• HydroChina Corporation;

• Sinohydro;

• China Gezhouba Group Corporation.

In 2019, the total installed capacity of China was 2010.06 GW, of which the installed capacity of thermal power, hydropower and nuclear power accounted for 59.18%, 17.81% and 2.42%, respectively (see Table 3). Gross electric output in 2019 reached 7142.21 TW·h. Most of the electricity was produced by thermal power (72.32%); hydropower contributed 16.15% and nuclear electricity production 4.88% (see Table 4 for energy related ratios).

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND INSTALLED CAPACITY

Source: www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/tongjxinxi/niandushuju, and http://data.stats.gov.cn/easyquery.htm?cn=A01 .

^a —: data not available.

^b Electricity losses are not deducted.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

* —: data not available.

After the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi accident, to formalize the common improvement actions for NPPs in China, the MEE/NNSA issued the General Technical Requirements on the Improvement of NPPs after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident, and organized NPP operating organizations to discuss technical schemes and to track progress in implementation. In addition, site surveys were made in September 2012 and September 2013 to ensure that all post-Fukushima improvement actions in NPPs were completed as required by regulatory authority.

The MEE/NNSA set the deadline for NPPs according to the degree of influence on safety and urgency of improvement actions. The improvements for operating NPPs were divided into short, medium and long term actions. The short and medium term actions were required to be completed in 2011 and 2013, respectively.

2.3.1.1. Short term improvement actions

2.3.1.2. Medium term improvement actions

2.3.1.3. Long term improvement actions

The ageing management work in NPPs is carried out according to the nuclear safety regulation requirements as laid out in the Periodic Safety Review in Nuclear Power Plant and Ageing Management of Nuclear Power Plants, by using the advanced experience in ageing management of the IAEA and other organizations, and with reference to the good practices in the nuclear power industry in China and other countries. Various ageing management work is carried out systematically in all phases of the construction, commissioning and operation of NPPs, including the establishment and improvement of a plant ageing management system (for both ageing management organizations and documentation systems), the activities of monitoring, testing, sampling and inspection, the assessment of the ageing mechanism predicted at the design of NPP, and the identification of conditions or performance deterioration that may occur in service but was not expected.

CNNO carried out an ageing management review and a time limit ageing analysis for the work on extending the operation permit of the 300 MW unit in Qinshan NPP and established the standard system for ageing management and operation permit extension of NPPs in China.

All NPPs were required to carry out screening and classification of ageing sensitive equipment. Tianwan NPP has completed the screening and review of ageing management parts of Units 1 and 2 and is planning the implementation of ageing management for Units 3 and 4; the working schedule was set where the screening and analysis of parts for ageing management would start in 2016 to prepare the overall plan for the implementation of ageing management for the new units. Hongyanhe NPP screened out 145 systems, 10 categories of structures and 760 categories of parts which are of concern from 334 systems and 93 categories of structures in the plant. Yangjiang NPP determined the levels 1, 2 and 3 lists for concern in ageing management for Units 1 and 2 and worked out different ageing management actions and strategies. The relevant work for Units 3 and 4 is in preparation.

In all NPPs, samples were retained for ageing management of structures and equipment. Tianwan NPP carried out ageing study for important power cables, screened out critical and sensitive power cables, retained samples and performed ageing status monitoring and assessment. Hongyanhe NPP has completed the sample retention for Units 1–4, and the samples are maintained and analysed on a unified basis by the CGN technical platform (Suzhou Nuclear Power Institute). Fangchenggang NPP completed the cable sample retention for Unit 1, prepared the management working procedure for the retained cable, and established a cable ageing management database with data entry. Taishan NPP initially screened out the list of cable samples to be retained for Unit 1.

All NPPs have carried out ageing management work for civil structures and pipes and developed NPP ageing management databases. Taishan NPP maintains the ageing data collection and record reservation system, to collect basic data for nine categories of important equipment, including reactor pressure vessels and steam generators. Fangchenggang NPP has developed and brought on-line the data collection and record reservation system for important equipment. In addition, Tianwan NPP has carried out the on-line life assessment for primary equipment, and Ningde NPP has carried out ageing management work for fluid accelerated corrosion.

The MEE/NNSA issued the following licences to NPPs from 1 January 2013 to 30 June 2020. ⁽⁶⁾

2.3.3.1. Siting review comments

2.3.3.2. Construction permits

2.3.3.4. Operation licence

As of 30 June 2020, China had no nuclear power units which are in permanent shutdown or decommissioning.

In 2013, the NEA was reorganized and reconstructed, and the Nuclear Power Department was created, which oversees drafting of nuclear power development programmes, plans and policies and planning of implementation. The Nuclear Power Department also takes the lead in organizing of international nuclear power cooperation. The establishment of the Nuclear Power Department is beneficial to the integration and perfection of nuclear power strategic objectives, development programmes and the industrial policies appropriate to it, to the unification of nuclear power technological routes and to the improvement of the level of localization and independence of nuclear technological equipment.

From 2016 to 2020, China will construct safely demonstration projects of self-designed NPPs mainly along the coastal nuclear power belt and complete the construction of AP1000 projects in Sanmen and Haiyang, in addition to other nuclear power projects. The construction of the HPR1000 demonstration projects in Fuqing and Fangchenggang has started. The construction of other new nuclear power projects along coastal areas will commence. The preparatory work for inland nuclear power projects will be actively carried out.

The Government of China implements the effective planning, instruction, supervision and management of nuclear power development. The major departments engaged in the development of China’s nuclear power include the CAEA, the NEA, the MEE/NNSA, and the National Health Commission. The final approval of nuclear power projects is discussed and made by the State Council Executive Meeting.

The CAEA is the authority for nuclear industry development for the Government of China and is responsible for researching, drafting and organizing the implementation of the policies, regulations, programmes, plans and industrial standards for the peaceful utilization of nuclear energy in China. It is also in charge of the communication and cooperation among governments and also among international organizations in the nuclear field and takes the lead in managing the nuclear accident emergency in the country.

The NEA is the nuclear power project industry management department. It is responsible for drafting nuclear power development planning, approving qualification of nuclear corporations, formulating technical standards, and organizing the implementation of them, proposing nuclear power major project audit opinions, organizing and coordinating nuclear power scientific research work.

The MEE/NNSA is the nuclear safety regulatory agency of China. It conducts independently the authorized supervision on nuclear safety of China's NPPs It also supervises the environmental protection of China's NPPs. One of the main measures is to implement a license system for the supervision of NPPs, nuclear materials and nuclear activities.

The National Health Commission, together with relevant authorities, formulates laws and regulations on prevention of radioactive occupational diseases, organizes and coordinates national nuclear emergency medical preparedness and rescue, and guides local health departments in proper nuclear emergency medical preparedness and disposal.

The State Administration of Work Safety is in charge of hygiene examinations and competes the acceptance of site selection and design for newly built, extended and reconstructed nuclear power projects.

According to nuclear safety regulations in China, the licensees (or applicant) of nuclear safety licences bear overall responsibilities for the safety of NPPs, nuclear materials and nuclear activities.

Nuclear power projects whose construction and preliminary work were approved before the end of 2019 have stocks held by CNNC, China General Nuclear Power Corporation (CGN), the China Huaneng Group and SPIC. Subsidiary nuclear power companies, as the owners, are responsible for the construction and operation of the nuclear power projects.

The owners of the nuclear power projects that have been constructed, approved but awaiting construction, or with preliminary preparations approved are all large, state owned enterprises. The fundraising of the nuclear power projects is mainly carried out by the holding company of each project. China permits the eligible private and other capital to participate in new nuclear power projects as an equity participant.

There are a number of NPP sites in operation and under construction in mainland China located in coastal areas. The siting of most of these NPPs began at the end of the 1990s, and the siting procedures and external event evaluation were all as required in the nuclear safety codes and reviewed and confirmed by the MEE/NNSA. Site selection is based on the requirements in the Code on Safety of Nuclear Power Plant Siting. The following factors are taken into considerations in the assessment of a site for its suitability:

1. The possible external natural events or human caused events in the surroundings of a certain site that may affect the NPP;

2. Site and environmental features that may cause the transfer of the released radioactive materials to people;

3. Density, distribution and other characteristics of the population of the peripheral zone relating to the possibility of implementing emergency measures and assessing personal and group risk.

The general assessment criteria include:

1. The site characteristics that could affect the NPP safety are examined and assessed. The regional environmental characteristics that may possibly be affected by radiation consequences under operation and accident conditions are examined. All these characteristics are observed and monitored throughout the whole lifetime of the NPP.

2. The safety of the recommended NPP site is reviewed on the basis of the occurring frequency and severity of natural events and external human events and various phenomena affecting the safety of the NPP.

3. The natural factors and human factors affecting the NPP safety in the area where the NPP is located are assessed for predictable evolution in the expected lifetime, and these factors need also be monitored throughout the whole lifetime of the NPP, especially the population growth rate and the population distribution characteristics. If necessary, appropriate measures are taken to ensure that the total risks are maintained at an acceptable low level.

4. Overall consideration is taken for the recommended site and for the NPP to determine its design basis external events. All external events related to major radiation risks are selected for consideration, and their design basis determined.

5. For an external event (or combination of events), the design basis parameter values for the NPP are selected to ensure that the structures, systems and components important to safety related to such event (or combination of events) can maintain their integrity without losing their functions at the time of, or after, the occurrence of a design basis event.

6. After an overall assessment of the site, if it is proved that the recommended measures cannot provide sufficient protection against the damage resulted from design basis external events, it is concluded that it is not suitable to build the recommended NPP on such a site.

7. In determining the design basis of relevant external events, their combination with the surrounding conditions (such as hydrological, hydrogeological and meteorological conditions) are taken into consideration. And the operation status of reactor is also taken into consideration.

8. The design basis of the site is assessed and included in the application documents for review by the regulatory body. The construction of relevant parts of the NPP can only start after the design basis is approved by the regulatory body. In case of any dispute on the design basis related to such a site and it is not possible to actually provide sufficient protective provisions, a site would be determined as inappropriate, and the construction begins only after disputes have been settled.

9. The results of investigation and research are documented in detail for independent review by the regulatory body.

10. When a selected site is analysed for suitability, issues of storage and transport of new fuel, spent fuel and radioactive waste are taken into consideration.

11. The possibility of interaction between radioactive effluents and non-radioactive effluents are taken into consideration. For example, the interaction of hot or chemical substances with radioactive materials in liquid effluents.

12. For each recommended site, factors such as the population distribution, diet and nutritional behaviour, land and water utilization, and the radiation effect produced by other radiological releases in the area are assess to determine the radiation effect the NPP might cause under operation and accident conditions (including those accident conditions that might lead to emergency actions) to the residents near the site.

13. The total installed capacity of the site is determined as early as possible in the first phase of siting process. If it is necessary to increase the total nuclear power installed capacity above the originally approved level, the suitability of that site is re-evaluated.

14. The quality assurance programme is implemented for all activities that could influence the safety and performed to determine the site design basis parameters. The quality assurance programme can be implemented according to relevant stipulations.

15. In the selection of NPP sites, the MEE/NNSA requires that non-residence and planning restricted zones be set up around an NPP to take into full account the possible effect of external human induced event sources in the development planning for site area and to control the future human activities in the area during the lifetime of the NPP.

When siting NPPs in China, the implementation ability of off-site emergency plan needs to be justified considering the current and expected environmental characteristics in the surrounding areas of the site. Meanwhile, China has established a nuclear emergency management system with hierarchic responsibilities, completed three national level nuclear emergency training bases, established over 30 national level professional rescue detachments, formed a national emergency rescue team with over 300 people, and made planning and deployment for rush rescue and emergency missions for major and extra nuclear accidents under complicated conditions. The nuclear emergency mutual support and cooperation mechanism has been established between nuclear power group corporations, and neighbouring NPPs have signed agreements on mutual support.

China attaches great importance to information publicity and public communication and ensures the right of the public to know and to participate. To this end, the MEE/NNSA issued the Scheme of Nuclear and Radiation Safety Regulatory Information Publicity (for trial implementation) and the Notice on Strengthening Information Publicity of Nuclear and Radiation Safety in NPPs and promulgated the MEE/NNSA Work Scheme of Nuclear and Radiation Safety Public Communication and Administrative Measures of Nuclear and Radiation Safety Regulatory Information Publicity, clearly specifying the scope of application and division of responsibilities for information publicity and the contents, timing, methods and channels of information publicity.

The main contents of nuclear and radiation safety regulation information publicity cover the following:

1. Laws and regulations, standards, policies and planning of the Government of China on nuclear and radiation safety;

2. Release of administrative licensing procedures and licensing documents for nuclear and radiation safety;

3. Safety supervisory inspection reports on relevant nuclear and radiation safety activities;

4. General state of nuclear installation safety;

5. Radioactive environment monitoring results;

6. Nuclear and radiation emergency plans;

7. Important nuclear and radiation events (accidents) and their investigation and treatment conclusions.

The MEE/NNSA mainly communicates with the public and the media through the following:

1. Important information about regulation activities is issued on the official website of the MEE/NNSA, such as licence issuance, important review and inspection activities (and their results), reports on construction and operating events of nuclear installations, radioactive environment monitoring results, and relevant information on nuclear and radiation accident emergencies.

2. Publicizing knowledge and information related to nuclear and radiation safety on web sites, newspapers, periodicals, TV, publications and publicity materials.

3. Soliciting public opinions, distributing questionnaires, and holding symposia and hearings before publishing important regulatory documents or decisions.

4. Inviting the media to participate in important experience exchange activities on nuclear safety regulation and organizing experts to answer and explain questions of public concerns.

In addition, the acceptable investigations organized by various nuclear groups and NPPs are proceeding steadily:

1. In July and August 2015, the first open day for the public for the nuclear industry included 13 NPPs.

2. In September 2015, the China General Nuclear Power Group held a media visit activity and ten senior journalists from seven major Hong Kong media outlet ⁽¹⁰⁾ were invited to Daya Bay NPP.

3. In 2017, CNNC launched the third science promotion activity of Nuclear with You, during which public representatives visited and explored the nuclear industry chain by following the three routes of nuclear energy, the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear power.

4. China General Nuclear Power Corporation continues to promote activities which popularize nuclear power in schools and classrooms. At present, there are over 120 primary and secondary schools involved, covering more than 20 000 students.

5. SPIC held the 1st Open Day Activity of NPP to the public with the theme of boosting green development and building a beautiful China, during which time the public visited the nuclear power science and technology centre, learned about the construction course of nuclear power project and enhanced their confidence in the utilization of nuclear energy.

China has an abundance of uranium reserves. By the end of 2012, China had made good progress in uranium exploration and natural uranium exploration, and more than 350 proven uranium deposits had formed large scale uranium resources bases.

In the field of nuclear fuel processing, including uranium conversion, uranium enrichment and fuel assembly manufacturing, China is capable of scale production and can provide nuclear fuel assembly for various kinds of power plants to meet the needs of nuclear power development. China has also adopted the closed nuclear fuel cycle technology. The first pilot plant for reprocessing power reactor spent fuel was built.

CNNC is the main supplier of nuclear fuel in China. Six subsidiaries of CNNC, together with the CGNPC Uranium Company, subordinate to China General Nuclear Power Corporation are the main producers of natural uranium and nuclear fuel:

1. China Nuclear Jinyuan Uranium Company;

2. China North Nuclear Fuel Company;

3. China South Nuclear Fuel Company;

4. Lanzhou Uranium Enrichment Company;

5. Shanxi Uranium Enrichment Company;

6. CNNC 404 Company, Ltd.

In China, the departments in charge of nuclear industry and relevant enterprises in nuclear energy industry jointly push forward the research, development and application of nuclear fuel technology, yielding important positive results. CNNC completed the development of two generations of CF series fuel assemblies (CF2, CF3) and established an independent and integrated technological system for manufacturing CF series fuel assemblies. The research and development of fuels for other new reactor types led by CNNC is proceeding smoothly, and the high temperature gas cooled reactor (HTGR) fuel production line of China North Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd. was completed and produced more than 300 000 fuel pebbles (TRISO). The STEP-12 pilot assembly and CZ zirconium alloy sample tube assembly, developed by CGN with their own initiatives, achieved significant breakthroughs in many links such as design, verification, manufacturing and material, gained excellent performance of out of reactor tests and are about to be put inside the reactor for exposure test. The CAP 1400 nuclear fuel prototype assemblies, independently developed and designed by SPIC, were taken off production line successfully in Baotou and will enter into the overall performance test phase.

The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Radioactive Pollution states requirements in the management of radioactive waste, providing legal support for the goals of radioactive waste management. The law states that in prevention and control of radioactive pollution, the State applies the principles of putting prevention first, combining prevention and control measures, exercising rigorous control and giving priority to safety, thus establishing an efficient system for monitoring radioactive pollution. The administrative department for environmental protection under the State Council conducts nationwide, coordinated supervision and management of radioactive pollution protection and prevention. In conjunction with the relevant departments under the State Council, NPP operators are required to emit exhaust gas and waste liquid in a legal manner. NPP operators apply for the radionuclide emission from the department responsible for environmental impacts assessment and report periodically the result of related measurements. Radioactive liquid waste which cannot be emitted into the environment is to be properly disposed or stored. Low and medium solid radioactive waste is disposed near the surface in prescribed areas; high solid radioactive waste is backfilled deep into Earth in a centralized way.

The Regulation on the Safety Management of Radioactive Waste, adopted in 2012, specifies the disposition, storage, treatment, supervision and management of radioactive waste.⁽¹¹⁾ The regulation states that the proper management of radioactive waste conforms to the principles of reduction, decontamination, proper management and permanent safety. China implements the policy of categorized management. The Ministry of Ecology and Environment is responsible for the safety supervision and management of radioactive waste nationwide and is involved in establishing a national radioactive waste management information system together with departments in charge of nuclear industry and other relevant departments in order to share information.

Operational NPP enterprises draw up and implement an Outline of Waste Management and draw up measures concerning waste treatment, waste storage and disposition, effective limitation on radioactive liquid effluents. The outline, approved by the MEE/NNSA before going into effect, keeps the effluents within the operation limit and condition.

Operational NPP enterprises conduct effective waste management and relevant activities by stipulating detailed procedures in accordance with design intent and hypothesis, and by implementing proper supervision, training and quality assurance measures, so as to reduce probability of abnormal events correlated with waste management system and to minimize radioactive waste.

The radioactive protection department of NPPs formulates and implements the radioactive waste management programme and environment monitoring programme, which oversee and assess the radiological effect of potential radioactive release to the environment. China’s NPPs have adopted a series of effective measures to reduce and control the radioactive waste, to monitor the procedure that produces waste so as to identify the source and feature of radioactive waste and to prove the procedure was in accordance with the operating rules and regulations. The monitoring results show that the effluents of radioactive liquid during operation is far less than the maximum limitation set by the Government of China.

China’s NPPs have enough equipment to store the waste produced during normal operation and predicted operation events. Excessive storage of untreated waste is avoided when processing the waste. The record and data of waste storage is saved in accordance with relevant laws and regulations.

It is clearly stated in the Nuclear Safety Plan issued by China in 2012 that the specific goal of contamination treatment and rectification is to build an advanced and highly efficient radioactive contamination treatment, rectification and waste treatment system adapting to the development level of nuclear industry. In essence, it seeks to complete disposal for low and medium level radioactive wastes in association with the development of the nuclear industry. The long term goal of 2020 is to carry out treatment and rectification of radioactive contamination in all aspects, achieve the decommissioning of nuclear installations to eliminate the safety risks of radioactive wastes left over, accomplish the top level design for treatment and disposal of high-level radioactive wastes and complete the underground laboratory.

China is preparing the Guide for Minimizing Radioactive Wastes from Nuclear Power Plants, and the draft for comments was completed. The Guide proposes that the minimization of radioactive wastes from NPPs should be based on ensuring the operational safety of NPPs and the safety of radioactive wastes. The minimization should focus on processes of waste treatment and disposal. Minimization measures include reduction of waste generation, volume reduction, recycling, reutilization and relevant management procedures. It should be ensured that the unconfined gas and liquid effluents produced in the normal operation of NPPs are under controlled discharge, and the wastes and waste packages for final disposal meet the performance requirements, and their quantities are as low as reasonably achievable. The guide aims to reduce the radioactive doses exposed to people in the treatment of radioactive wastes, reduce the radioactivity and the quantity of radioactive materials during the course of treating the radioactive wastes, and reduce the radioactive waste management cost of NPPs. Such measures include:

1. Source term control, using the best available process;

2. Optimizing equipment management;

3. Strict control and classified collection;

4. Recycling utilization;

5. Reducing volume of wastes;

6. Strict access management for controlled zones;

7. Clean unconfinement to control and reduce effectively the amount of radioactive waste produced;

8. Monitoring the technological processes producing waste;

9. Providing information about the sources and characteristics of radioactive waste;

10. Confirming that it is consistent with operational procedures.

Monitoring results show that the discharge amount of radioactive effluents during operation of NPPs is far below the discharge limit stipulated by the national standards. NPPs in China have sufficient facilities to store radioactive wastes produced during the normal operation and anticipated operational events. Excessive accumulation of untreated wastes is avoided during waste treatment. Records and documents of the amount of stored wastes are well kept according to the requirements of relevant regulations and quality assurance.

To ensure and maintain the integrity and subcritical limits of the spent fuel, China’s NPPs store the spent fuel elements in their spent fuel storage facilities in strict accordance with nuclear safety regulations. The underwater storage (The spent fuel discharged from the reactor needs to be stored in the spent fuel pool for about 5-8 years, whether pool storage or wet storage) of spent fuel and the water quality conform to stipulated chemical and physical properties. Decommissioning storage of spent fuel has also been well prepared. NPPs in operation have signed agreements with relevant technology service enterprises to specify spent fuel disposition and the responsibilities of outside transport and storage. In the meantime, research and development has been carried out for spent fuel shipping containers, in preparation for the transport of spent fuel. NPPs under construction have also signed long term service agreements and spent fuel agreements regarding receiving and storage with relevant technology service enterprises.

The off-plant storage facilities for spent fuel in China comply with design and safety requirements. Operating organizations have established the safe operation plans for a variety of topics, including spent fuel storage, operation procedures, commissioning plans, the quality assurance programme, training schedules, the radiation protection programme and emergency preparedness. The operational limits and conditions for facilities have been defined, including parameters for subcriticality, radiation safety and residual heat removal.

The operation, maintenance, monitoring, inspection and testing of temporary dry storage facilities for spent fuel are performed according to the prepared and approved procedures. The above mentioned plans, stipulations, procedures and requirements include:

1. Spent fuel storage plan;

2. Management stipulations for storage module, storage cylinder, fuel basket position and numbering;

3. Fuel basket inspection and submerging under water;

4. Loading, drying up and welding;

5. Transport and lifting requirements;

6. Management stipulations for continuous gamma monitoring;

7. Radiation protection supervision;

8. Management stipulations for storage module area;

9. Daily inspection and supervision stipulations for storage casks, inspection and maintenance schedule for storage modules, storage casks, fuel baskets and shielded working cases;

10. Equipment maintenance, testing and acceptance procedures.

The temporary dry storage facilities for spent fuel can obtain all safety related engineering and technical supports.

Since 2011, to maintain reactor cooling, spent fuel pool cooling and the necessary post-accident monitoring capacity of NPPs under station blackout conditions, all NPPs have made improvements according to the requirements on spent fuel pool monitoring means, monitoring scope, monitoring instruments and system availability in the General Technical Requirements on the Improvement of NPPs after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident. In addition, all have added spent fuel pool monitoring equipment and means, such as level and temperature monitoring, to obtain necessary information about spent fuel pool after a potential accident.

Since the inauguration of the nuclear power programme, China nuclear power has adapted foreign technologies and independently pursued domestic research and development. China independently designed and constructed the Qinshan 300 MW NPP in 1991. Besides, China has acquired the design and construction technology of 600 MW and 1 GW pressurized water reactors (PWRs) by adapting the M310 technology adopted in Daya Bay NPP.

Although China developed nuclear power from 1980s, there is a solid basis for its civilian nuclear pursuits. Hence by making use of this advantage and using various advanced technologies and experience gained from NPP operation and management, China’s operating NPPs have continually improved their performances.

To realize sustainable development of nuclear power, China implemented a development strategy, focusing on thermal reactors, fast neutron reactors and controlled nuclear fusion. China is giving priority to GW-level PWRs, actively pushing forward the basic research, development, design and construction of HTGRs, commercial reactors and other NPPs with good safety performances, and increasing the capacity of independent innovation.

China's existing operating nuclear power units are all PWRs, except Third Qinshan NPP, which is a pressurized heavy water reactor (CANDU-6). Among the 11 nuclear power units under construction in China at the end of 2019, four units adopted the GW-level, improved, second generation PWR unit, six units adopted HPR1000 technology, and one unit adopted High Temperature Reactor–Pebble-Bed Module (HTR–PM) technology.

2.9.1.1. HPR1000

2.9.1.2. EPR & AP1000

2.9.1.3. HTGR

2.9.1.4. CEFR

2.9.1.5. Other reactors

China participated in the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO) guided by the IAEA. So far, China designated specialists to attend and assist the steering committee, seminars, and technical conferences of INPRO.

China joined the Generation IV International Forum (GIF). China participated in the steering committees of HTGRs and of sodium cooled fast reactors. A few officials and specialists from China have become members in the task force of GIF work group.

China is one of the five founding members of the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP). China actively participates in the work of The International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC) and holds the post of vice president of INFNEC.

China gives priority to a forward looking perspective on the international cooperation programme concerning long term energy supply. China joined the ITER programme and set up the special programme of International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor Implementation Program. So far, the Institute of Plasma Physics Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Southwestern Institute of Physics, ShanXitaigang and GuiZhouxinli has conducted feasibility research on China’s ITER procurement package. By February 2012, China had completed the conclusion and signing of procurement agreements for 10 out of the 12 procurement packages for manufacturing, which were promised at the admission to ITER, the first procurement package of China was completed in December 2015.

CNNC signed an MOU on Collaboration in Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industrial Chain with the Nuclear Power Plant Research Institute Trnava (VÚJE), Slovakia, in November 2015, at the 4th Leader’s Meeting of China and Central and Eastern European Countries.

In 2019, China actively engaged in international exchanges and cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy and had made important achievements in the “going global” nuclear power strategy. The cold functional test of the first overseas HPR1000 reactor - Unit 2 of Pakistan Karachi NPP was completed, the main work of nuclear island erection was mostly completed, and the unit fully entered the system commissioning phase. China continued to provide training for the operating and maintenance personnel of Units 2 and 3 of Karachi NPP. CNNC signed the Tianwan NPP Units 7 and 8 General Contract and Xudapu NPP Units 3 and 4 General Contract, with Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation and the Agreement on Strategic Cooperation in the Field of Technical Services and Turkish Akkuyu NPP Technical Management Personnel Training Project Contract with Rosatom Atomic Energy Service Corporation and seeks to expand cooperation in many fields such as personnel training, technology upgrade and transformation, equipment reliability improvement and international exchanges. CNNC signed a memorandum of understanding with Emirates Nuclear Energy Company to strengthen cooperation in the field of nuclear energy and was prepared to establish an industrywide supply chain operation, investment and financing platform of CNNC in overseas and global markets, with a view to jointly explore and establish a development model of China’s nuclear industry (industry + finance + overseas market) under the “Belt and Road Initiative”. Furthermore, CNNC signed a memorandum of understanding with Hungary, which clearly established cooperation in the fields of nuclear power talent training, Paks NPP Phase II construction, and nuclear industrial park development.

CGN signed the Package Cooperation Agreement on British New Nuclear Power Projects with Électricité de France (EDF) and the UK government to jointly build three major nuclear power projects in the UK and develop third-party markets. Among them, the Hinkley Point NPP project (using the French EPR third-generation nuclear power technology) proceeded smoothly, and the first concrete of the nuclear island was poured. For the Bradwell B project (using the China’s HPR1000 third-generation nuclear power technology), the site survey was underway. CGN signed contracts and memorandums of understanding with 9 companies of the Czech nuclear energy industry chain to exchange engineering construction modes. CGN also actively kept track of nuclear power markets in Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Central and Eastern Europe and other regions and kept close communication and exchanges with government departments and partners in Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Cambodia, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia and other countries to develop cooperation regarding new nuclear power projects.

In addition, China has also conducted experience sharing and international exchanges in the fields of nuclear import and export control, nuclear safety culture construction, and nuclear energy development and communication with the public. China has actively engaged in nuclear energy cooperation with the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, France, Saudi Arabia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Argentina, Brazil, Germany and other countries and carried out exchanges related to the nuclear power “going global” strategies, including the HPR1000, small reactor, the floating power plant, digital NPPs, decommissioning management and other key and scientific research projects. China has continued to promote the nuclear research cooperation with Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL) and American Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and carry out international cooperation with EDF and British National Nuclear Laboratory on advanced digitization reactor technology.

The World Association of Nuclear Power Operators (WANO) Shanghai Center Project was unanimously approved at the WANO General Meeting on February 21, 2019, and the WANO Shanghai Center was officially launched. The Shanghai Center Project is of great significance to the safe and stable operation of newly-built nuclear power units in the vast Asian region represented by China. In the next stage, CNNC will work with other nuclear power enterprises in China to jointly build the WANO Shanghai Center as an exchange and cooperation platform for regional nuclear power operators with international influence.

The regulator for China's nuclear safety is the MEE/NNSA, the main duties of which include:

1. It is responsible for the supervision and management of nuclear and radiation safety. It draws up and puts into implementation the related policies, plans, laws, administrative regulations and departmental rules, standards and specifications, concerning nuclear and radiation safety, electromagnetic radiation, radiation environmental protection, nuclear and radiation emergency.

2. It is responsible for the coordinated supervision and management on nuclear safety of nuclear facilities, radiation safety and radiation environmental protection.

3. It is responsible for the licensing, design, manufacture, and installation of nuclear safety equipment, the supervision and management of nondestructive inspection activities, and the safety inspection of imported nuclear safety equipment.

4. It is responsible for the supervision and management of the controlling and physical protection of nuclear materials.

5. It is responsible for the supervision and management of nuclear technology projects, and radiation safety and radiation environmental protection of uranium (thorium) and accompanying radioactive mines. It is also in charge of the supervision and management in radiation protection.

6. It is responsible for the supervision and management of radioactive waste treatment and radiation safety of disposal and environmental protection work, and the supervision and examination of the prevention and control of radioactive pollution.

7. It is responsible for the supervision and management of radioactive substance transport safety.

8. It is responsible for the nuclear and radiation emergency response, investigation and handling in the MEE/NNSA, also involved in the prevention and treatment of nuclear and radiation terrorism.

9. It is responsible for the personnel qualification administration of operators for reactor and nuclear equipment.

10. It carries out supervision and monitoring over the ambient radiation, nuclear facilities, and the major source of radiation.

11. It is responsible for the domestic implementation of related international convention concerning nuclear and radiation safety.

12. It is obliged to guide the related business involving nuclear and radiation safety surveillance sites.

13. Conduct scientific research and study of applied technology in nuclear and radiation safety area.

The administrative competent department of environment protection of the State Council conducts the unified surveillance and management for the prevention and remedy of the radioactive contamination nationwide. The health administrative department under the State Council, as well as other relevant departments, in accordance with the stipulated duties of the State Council and in accordance with the law, supervise and manage radioactive pollution prevention and control work. The daily inspection work is carried out mainly according to the provisions in the law and the relevant procedures and coordination mechanism, inspections concerning important nuclear safety issues and major safety inspection programmes (such as the comprehensive safety inspection of nuclear installations in the whole country after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident) are usually carried out jointly by the nuclear safety regulatory body (NNSA) and the industry competent authorities (CAEA and NEA). When some special fields are involved, the relevant professional departments on nuclear safety also participate in the law enforcement activities, for example, seismological and meteorological departments would participate in the evaluation on earthquakes and tsunami for sites of nuclear installations, and when transport and traffic issues are concerned, the transport department is invited to the relevant activities.

For sanctions in law enforcement, the nuclear safety regulatory body (NNSA) would usually solicit opinions from the competent authorities and impose sanctions in strict accordance with the administrative sanction procedures. A sanction notice is sent first, with appealing procedures indicated; after the final sanction is made, the letter of sanction is usually copied selectively to the competent authorities of the industry (CAEA and NEA), the guarantee departments of the nuclear industry (the Ministry of Finance and the State owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission) and relevant professional departments.

In 2013, China launched a new round reform of the administrative approval system, to further streamline administration and delegate power to the lower levels. The MEE/NNSA made partial exploration and practice in this regard for the nuclear and radiation safety regulation. For some items with low risks and assured safety, the review and approval process has been simplified or exemption management adopted. In the meantime, licensing matters are streamlined. At present, there are 20 administrative licensing items on nuclear and radiation safety directly undertaken by the MEE/NNSA as approved by the State Council, concerning the licensing of NPP operators, nuclear materials licensing, and the design, manufacturing, erection and non-destructive testing of nuclear safety equipment.

China’s NPP licences include:

1. Site selection audit review;

2. Construction permit;

3. First fuel loading permit;

4. Operation permit;

5. Operator permit;

6. Examination and approval documents of environmental impact, statements, and evaluation report of NPP occupational disease hazard during the phases of site selection, construction and operation;

7. Other documents that are required to be approved, including decommissioning permit, etc.

The application and approval process for permit is shown in Fig. 1.

FIG. 1. The application and approval of a licence and permit.

The applicants submit the application and safety analysis report and the other relevant documents in line with rules and regulations for approval by the MEE/NNSA before they conduct nuclear activities.

In the process of examination and approval, the MEE/NNSA solicit opinions and advice from the relevant departments of the State Council, and the provincial, autonomous regional and municipality governments where the NPP is located.

The MEE/NNSA decides whether to issue a permit and provides necessary permit conditions after having obtained the technical evaluation results, consults the relevant departments of the State Council and the local governments, and receives consultation and deliberation of Nuclear Safety Committee of Experts.

1. Nuclear Safety Act of the People's Republic of China (Passed on 1 September 2017, during the 29th meeting of the twelfth session of the standing committee of the National People’s Congress of People’s Republic of China)

2. The Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China (Passed on 26 December 1989, during the 11th meeting of the seventh session of the standing committee of the National People's Congress of People’s Republic of China)

3. The Occupational Disease Prevention Law of the People’s Republic of China (Passed on 27 October 2001, during the 24th meeting of the ninth session of the standing committee of the National People's Congress; revision passed on 31 December 2011 during the 24th meeting of the 11th session of the standing committee of the National People's Congress)

4. Environmental Impact Assessment Law of the People’s Republic of China (Passed on 28 October 2002, during the 30th meeting of the ninth session of the standing committee of the National People's Congress)

5. Law on the Prevention and Control of Radioactive Pollution of the People’s Republic of China (Passed on 28 June 2003, during the 3rd meeting of the tenth session of the standing committee of the National People's Congress)

1. Regulations on the Safety Regulation for Civilian Nuclear Installations of the People’s Republic of China (HAF001) (Issued by the State Council on 29 October 1986)

2. Regulations on Nuclear Materials Control of the People’s Republic of China (HAF501) (Issued by the State Council on 15 June 1987)

3. Emergency Management Regulations for Nuclear Accident at Nuclear Power Plant (HAF002) (Issued by the State Council on 4 August 1993)

4. Regulations on the Supervision and Management for Civilian Nuclear Safety Equipment (Issued by the State Council on 11 July 2007)

5. Radioactive Goods Transportation Safety Management Regulations (Issued by the State Council on 14 September 2009)

6. Regulations on the Management for Safety of Radioactive Waste (Issued by the State Council on 20 December 2011)

7. Regulations on the Safety and Protection of Radioisotopes and Radiation Devices (Issued by the State Council on 14 September 2005)

8. Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Control of Nuclear Export (Issued by the State Council on 10 September 1997, and revised in 2004)

9. Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Control of Nuclear Dual-purpose Goods and Related Technologies Export (Issued by the State Council on 10 June 1998, and revised in 2004)

1. Rules for the Implementation of Regulations on the Safety Regulation for Civilian Nuclear Installations of the People’s Republic of China, Part One. Application and Issuance of Safety License for Nuclear Power Plant (HAF001/01) (Issued by the NNSA on 31 December 1993)

2. Rules for the Implementation of Regulations on the Safety Supervision and Management for Civil Nuclear Installations of the People’s Republic of China, Part One. Appendix 1: Issuance and Management Procedures for Operator License of Nuclear Power Plant (HAF001/01/01). (Issued by the NNSA on 31 December 1993)

3. Rules for the Implementation of Regulations on the Safety Supervision and Management for Civil Nuclear Installations of the People’s Republic of China, Part Two. Safety Regulation of Nuclear Installations (HAF001/02) (Issued by the NNSA on 14 June 1995)

4. Rules for the Implementation of Regulations on the Safety Supervision and Management for Civil Nuclear Installations of the People’s Republic of China, Part Two. Appendix 1: The Reporting System for Operating Organization of Nuclear Power Plant (HAF001/02/01) (Released and approved by the NNSA on 14 June 1995)

5. Rules for the Implementation of Emergency Management Regulations for Nuclear Accident at Nuclear Power Plant - Part One. Emergency Preparedness and Response for Nuclear Power Plant Operating Organization (HAF002/01) (Released and approved by the NNSA on 12 May 1998)

6. Code on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plant Quality Assurance (HAF003) (NNSA Decree No. 1 on 27 July 1991)

7. Code on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plant Siting (HAF101) (NNSA Decree No. 1 on 27 July 1991)

8. Code on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plant Design (HAF102) (Approved and Promulgated by NNSA on 28 October 2016)

9. Code on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plant Operation (HAF103) (Approved and Promulgated by NNSA on 18 April 2004)

10. Code on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plant Operation, Appendix 1. Management of Refueling, Modifications and Accidental Shut-down of Nuclear Power Plant (HAF103/01) (Approved and Promulgated by NNSA on 2 March 1994)

11. The Civilian Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities Safety Regulations (HAF301) (NNSA Decree No. 1 on 17 June 1993)

12. Regulation on Safety of Radioactive Waste (HAF401) (Approved and Promulgated by NNSA on 5 November 1997)

13. Rules for the Implementation of Regulations on Nuclear Materials Control of the People’s Republic of China (HAF501/01) (Released by NNSA, Department of Energy, National Defense Science and Technology Industry Committee on 25 September 1990)

14. Rules on the Regulation and Management of the Design, Manufacture, Installation and Non-destructive Testing of Civilian Nuclear Safety Equipment (HAF601) (Decreed by State Environmental Protection Administration (NNSA) on 28 December 2007)

15. Regulations Rules for Qualification Management of Non-destructive Testing Personnel of Civilian Nuclear Safety Equipment (HAF602) (Decreed by State Environmental Protection Administration (NNSA) on 28 December 2007)

16. Rules for Qualification Management of Welders and Welding Operators of Civilian Nuclear Safety Equipment (HAF603) (Decreed by State Environmental Protection Administration (NNSA) on 28 December 2007)

17. Regulations Rules for the Regulation and Management of Imported Civilian Nuclear Safety Equipment (HAF604) (Decreed by State Environmental Protection Administration (NNSA) on 28 December 2007)

18. Implementing Rules No. 2, Attachment 3 of the Civilian Nuclear Safety Supervision and Management Regulations (Approved and released by NNSA on 28 January 2006) Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities Reporting System (HAF001/02/03) (Approved and released by NNSA on 14 June 1995)

19. List on the Administration of Construction Project Environmental Impact Assessment (No. 2 Decree of the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China) (Approved and released by the Ministry of Environmental Protection on 2 September 2008 and revised in 2015)

20. Measures for the Administration on License of Transportation Safety of Radioactive Materials (HAF701) (Approved and released by NNSA on 25 September 2010)

21. Measures for the Management on Safety License of Radioisotopes and Radiation Devices (HAF801) (Promulgated by NNSA on 6 December 2008)

22. Measures for the Management on Safety and Protection of Radioisotopes and Radiation Devices (HAF802) (Promulgated by NNSA on 18 April 2011)

23. The Measures for the Administration of Electromagnetic Radiation Environmental Protection (Promulgated by NNSA in 1997)