Italy, relatively poor in conventional energy raw materials, has historically paid great attention to renewable sources, energy efficiency and energy saving as tools to reduce dependence and mitigate the environmental and climatic effects of the energy cycle.

Recent technological progress on renewable sources, means of transport, accumulation systems, energy efficiency and communication technology offers a renewed opportunity to resolve the conflict between competitive prices of energy and support for decarbonization.

With these premises, the Italian energy policy was recently updated by the Ministry of Economic Development (MSE) and the Ministry for Environment, Land and Sea Protection (MATTM) [1]. After public consultation started on 12 June 2017, a ministerial decree was issued on 10 November 2017 for the adoption of the National Energy Strategy for 2030, available on the MSE and MATTM web sites.

The key themes that have led to the elaboration of a Government proposal for a new national energy strategy are: the country’s increasing competitiveness, owing to its aligning of its energy prices with European ones, improvements in the security of supply and provision, and the decarbonization of the energy system in line with the long term objectives of the Paris Agreement. These three objectives had already been indicated in EU energy policy in 1990, and along these lines the European Union continues to develop its action plan. These actions are slated to continue through 2030, according to the Clean Energy Package, presented in November 2016 by the European Commission. The National Energy Strategy outlines an important milestone and framework for defining a solid foundation to prepare an integrated national plan on energy and climate, as foreseen by the Clean Energy Package.

The Strategy has not included nuclear energy production, and the closed NPPs (about 1400 MW) are in the process of decommissioning, under implementation by the state owned company Societŕ gestione impianti nucleari (SOGIN).

Concerning the first objective, aimed at enhancing Italy’s competitiveness, actions are to narrow cost and price differentials to the benefit of all consumers, to finalize the liberalization processes, and to rely on instruments that protect the competitiveness of energy intensive industrial sectors, while preventing the risks of delocalization and safeguarding employment. In particular, price targets aim to narrow the gap between the cost of natural gas in Italy compared to northern European (~€2/MW·h in 2016), particularly the gaps between electricity prices in Italy compared to the EU average (equal to roughly €35/MW·h in 2015 for an average household or about 25% on average for companies).

With regard to the second objective on sustainable growth, the Strategy sets out objectives and measures to achieve sustainable growth and environmental targets, contributing in particular to a low carbon economy and to the fight against climate change. Renewable resources and energy efficiency will contribute not only to environmental protection, but also to energy security (by reducing the dependence of the energy system) and economic competitiveness through cost effective pricing of energy. For this objective, strategic actions include:

• Further promotion of renewable resources, with a target of 28% in the final consumption.

• Support of energy efficiency projects that maximize sustainability, keep system charges low by curbing yearly energy consumption from 2021 to 2030 (10 Mtoe/a by 2030) and allow the achievement of non-emissions trading system CO₂ emission reduction targets, with a particular focus on the residential and transport sectors.

• Step up decarbonization of the energy system by accelerating the decommissioning of coal fired thermal power plants by 2025.

• Increase public resources for R&D of clean energy technologies by doubling investments: from €222 million in 2013 to €444 million in 2021.

Concerning the third objective of energy security, the steady improvement of the security and capacity of energy systems as well as the flexibility of gas networks and power grids, will be implemented through:

• Integration of a growing amount of renewable resources (including distributed ones) and new players, by strengthening and fostering the evolution of networks, grids and markets towards smart, flexible and resilient configurations.

• Diversification of gas supply sources to prevent political instability in exporting countries, and further integration into European markets. In fact, gas will play an essential role in the energy transition, both for electricity generation, services and other uses, including liquid natural gas in heavy and maritime transport.

As an overall result, the Italian energy system will be even more based on gas and renewable sources looking at 2030, with oil still relevant for transport. This mix convergence will favour convergence of prices.

Italy is heavily dependent on imported energy supplies (see Table 1). In 2015, the share of imported energy was 76%, but is expected to decrease to 64% in 2030. Renewables are expected to play a key role in the future strategy; renewables were already 17.5% of total final energy consumption and 33.5% of the electricity consumption in 2015 (see Table 2) [1].

In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world’s largest producers of renewable energy, ranking as the second largest producer in the European Union after Germany and the ninth in the world, as well as the world’s fifth largest producer of energy from solar power [2].

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

	Fossil fuels			Nuclear	Renewables
	Solid	Liquid	Gas	Uranium	Hydro	Other renewables
Total amount*	0	81.5	40.5	0	0.0219	0.029

Source: World Energy Council, 2016; available at www.worldenergy.org/data/resources/country/italy.

* Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: tonnes; hydro and renewables: TW.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

	2000	2010	2015	2016	Compound annual growth rate 2000–2016 (%)
Total energy consumption (EJ)*	7.29	7.45	6.54	6.48	-0.74
Solids**	0.53	0.57	0.52	0.46	-0.83
Liquids	3.75	2.91	2.39	2.32	-2.97
Gases	2.43	2.85	2.32	2.43	0.01
Nuclear	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Hydro	0.16	0.18	0.16	0.15	-0.25
Other renewables	0.26	0.73	0.94	0.94	8.23
Total energy production (EJ)	1.19	1.38	1.51	1.42	1.07
Solids**	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Liquids	0.21	0.24	0.24	0.17	-1.31
Gases	0.57	0.29	0.23	0.20	-6.39
Nuclear	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Hydro	0.18	0.20	0.17	0.16	-0.87
Other renewables	0.22	0.62	0.82	0.84	8.76

Source: EU Open Data Portal, August 2018 Update. Latest available data is for 2016, http://data.europa.eu/euodp/en/home.

* Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + net imports (imports - exports) of secondary energy.

** Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

In 1962, the electric sector was nationalized by Act No. 1643 of 6 December 1962. Ente nazionale per l’energia elettrica (ENEL), the Italian electricity generating board, was established to be fully in charge of electricity production and transmission, and partially for the distribution of electricity.

Over the following three decades, the electricity system — in terms of production, transmission and distribution — was organized along the following model: a large, nationwide company (ENEL); a number of municipal utilities, namely in the large cities such as Rome, Milan and Turin; and a large number of industrial automobile producers.

Starting from the early 1990s, many changes took place in the Italian electricity sector. By Decree No. 333 of 11 July 1992, the Government privatized some state owned industrial and commercial companies. The new companies issued shares for a total value equal to the net fixed assets given in the last balance sheet. The shares were allocated to the Treasury and the revenue obtained by their sale will be used to reduce the national debt and to balance the Government’s books. Thus, in August 1992, ENEL became a joint stock company with its shares in the hands of the Treasury. In November 1995, the law setting up the Independent Regulatory Authority was approved, and the Authority has been operational since the beginning of 1997. In December 1995, the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Crafts (hereafter referred to as the Ministry of Industry) issued the new concession to ENEL.

In March 1999, a legislative decree (the Bersani decree) was issued to restructure and liberalize the Italian electricity sector. The purpose of the decree was both to reach a sufficiently large liberalization and to guarantee such general economic interest as, for instance, a universal service, tariff equalization and the development of renewable sources.

According to the Bersani decree, ENEL began a process of complete reorganization. ENEL is now a joint stock company, whose shares of 23.6% are mainly the property of the Ministry of Economy and Finance (MEF, former Ministry of Treasury).

The main responsibility for general energy policy lies with the MSE, while the MATTM is responsible for coordinating climate change policies. Furthermore, the latter body, in coordination with the MSE, is responsible for the promotion and development of renewable energy and for energy efficiency.

The Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies (MIPAAF) deals with the development and coordination of policy guidelines in the fields of agriculture and forestry at the national, European and international levels. Therefore, it plays a significant role in the bioenergy sector.

The Regulatory Authority for Energy, Networks and Environment (ARERA) has a number of responsibilities regarding renewable energy, such as ensuring fair grid access conditions or allocating support to face renewable energy costs to different consumer groups.

Gestore servizi energetici (GSE) promotes the development of renewable sources and energy efficiency, manages payments of economic incentives, and forecasts and aggregates the production of renewable energy power plants. This also includes the sale of renewable power on the electricity market and supporting policy makers with analysis. GSE is organized as a private company with a sole shareholder, the MEF, which exercises its shareholder rights together with the MSE, which is responsible for operational guidelines.

The National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) is a public body supervised by the MSE in cooperation with other ministries. Its purposes are research, technological innovation and the provision of advanced services in the energy and sustainable economic development sector. ENEA’s main research topics are energy efficiency, renewable energy, nuclear energy, climate and environment, safety and health and new technologies.

Terna is responsible for high voltage electricity transmission and dispatching throughout the national territory. Like GSE, Terna was established as a result of the liberalization of the electricity market in 1999.

The responsibility for energy policy is shared between the Government and the regions. Legislative Decree No. 112 of 1998 made the regions responsible for the administrative duties relating to energy, including renewable sources, electricity, oil and gas, which were not reserved to the State or assigned to local authorities. Under Constitutional Act No. 3 of 2001, the State has legislative power within the renewable energy sector, while the regions have administrative power (see Fig. 1).

FIG. 1. The electricity system in Italy.

Italy has fully unbundled transmission and generation ownership. Slow growth in net demand as a result of a combination of low economic activity, energy efficiency programmes and an increase in renewable capacity has also contributed to a relative surplus of generation. In spite of that, Italy continues to import significant quantities of lower price energy from abroad.

Though natural gas is the largest single source of generation in Italy, its relative share has been declining in recent years in favour of increased solar and wind power generation. In fact, since 2013, total production from thermoelectric plants (natural gas, coal and oil) has declined, with natural gas and coal production falling significantly. Production from renewables, on the other hand, has increased, even if at a slower pace than in previous years.

The role of natural gas generation in the Italian power mix has changed over time as the amount of solar photovoltaic and wind in the system has increased, which has in turn changed the shape of demand in certain parts of the country by reducing peak load on sunny days.

In terms of installed capacity, ENEL is by far the largest producer of electricity (its share is bigger than the next five companies combined), while the second largest, Ente nazionale idrocarburi (ENI), has only around 5% of the market share.

Italy has very low levels of renewables curtailment, though this could change if the increase in penetration of variable renewables outpaces developments in the transmission and distribution system. Over the past years, Italy has made changes to dispatch operations intended at increasing system efficiency, including the introduction of a mechanism to better measure and more generally enhance the performance of frequency regulation.

In order to maintain sufficient system adequacy, the MSE was instructed via the 2014 budget law to introduce a capacity system intended to remunerate flexible generation. A ministerial decree, dated 30 June 2014, further outlined the new capacity mechanism requirements; system adequacy will be measured, taking into account: (i) grid and cross-border interconnection capacity; (ii) active demand side management; and (iii) the contribution of distributed generation.

Terna, the Italian transmission system operator (TSO) has primary operational responsibility for electricity emergency response. The electricity distribution networks also have an important role in planning electricity emergency response.

Distribution system operators (DSOs) are required to support the TSO in the event of a network crisis. The growing share of intermittent renewables in the electricity supply requires real time information sharing, robust communication and coordination of real time power system management between the TSO and DSOs. Arguably, Italy is moving towards an electricity system in which nodes in the distribution networks need to progressively move from being passive to active players. This means that DSOs need to become increasingly capable of exchanging signals with distributed loads and generators as well as with Terna, in order to maintain voltage and current standards, adequate performance in case of relevant incidents and, in general, the security of the Italian power system.

The nature and volume of emergency and other resources available to Terna and other responsible parties to manage emergency events are set out in the Italian Grid Code.

Over the years, operational procedures for emergency operation enclosed in multilateral procedures have been developed with all neighbouring countries. In particular, bilateral agreements have been signed with all neighbours for mutual emergency assistance service to supply real time service in case of any emergency operation. Written agreements which take into consideration emergency procedures have been concluded with all adjacent TSOs between Austrian Power Grid (Austria), Swissgrid (Switzerland), RTE (France), ELES (Slovenia) and HTSO/DESMIE (Greece).

Italy’s total gross output capacity of electricity generating plants in 2016 amounted to 117.1 GW; the list of different energy sources is given in Table 3 and ratios in Table 4. Total gross electricity production in 2016 was 310.2 TW·h, including wind and photovoltaic for about 60.9 TW·h. High voltage transmission lines, connecting power plants with the distribution system, are mainly based on 380 kV and 220 kV lines.

TABLE 3. INSTALLED CAPACITY, ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

		2000	2010	2015	2016	Compound annual growth rate 2000–2016 (%)
Capacity of electrical plants (GW(e))	G/N
Thermal		56.43	78.34	68.6	64.9	0.88
Nuclear		—a	—a	—a	—a
Hydro		20.66	21.89	22.6	22.6	0.56
Windb
Geothermal		0.63	0.77	0.82	0.81	1.58
Other renewables		0.37	9.41	28.05	28.7	31.28
Total		78.09	110.41	120.07	117.08	2.56
Electricity production (TW·h)	G/N
Thermal		220.47	231.25	192.05	176	-1.40
Nuclear		—a	—a	—a	—a
Hydro		50.90	54.41	46.97	41	-1.34
Windb
Geothermal		4.71	5.38	6.2	6.2	1.73
Other renewables		0.6	11.03	37.79	60.9	33.48
Totalc		276.6	302.07	282.99	284.1	0.17
Total electricity consumption (TW·h)		298.5	302.06	316.9	310.2	0.24

Source: Latest available data is from 2016, Terna (www.terna.it/it-it/sistemaelettrico/statisticheeprevisioni/datistorici.aspx).

^a —: data not available.

^b Wind energy is included in other renewables.

^c Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

	2000	2010	2015	2016
Electricity consumption (KW·h/capita)	4.835	4.896	5.125	4.835
Electricity production/Energy production (%)	83.49	78.54	67.34	73.72
Nuclear/Total electricity (%)	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00

Source: Terna, Dati storici (http://download.terna.it/terna/0000/1089/68.PDF) and EU Open Data Portal, August 2018 Update (http://data.europa.eu/euodp/en/home).

Italy was one of the first countries to use nuclear technology for civil power generation. The Italian history of nuclear technology development can be split into three major periods:

1. Pioneering period from 1946 to 1965, during which the private industry played a fundamental role;

2. Planning period from 1966 to 1987, during which the Government planned nuclear development;

3. Post referenda period from 1988 onward, which is characterized by the efforts to abandon nuclear energy production.

2.1.1.1. Pioneering period

In November 1946, the Centro informazioni studi ed esperienze (CISE) was founded, with the participation of the elite post-war Italian industries (Edison, Montecatini and Fiat) and some of the most prominent Italian nuclear scientists. Early on, the purpose of CISE was to lay down the foundations of civil nuclear engineering and, later on, to design a natural uranium fuelled, heavy water moderated nuclear test reactor.

In June 1952, the Government established the Comitato nazionale per le ricerche nucleari (CNRN), an agency in charge of developing and promoting nuclear technology. In August 1960, it was reorganized and renamed the Comitato nazionale per l’energia nucleare (CNEN).

In October 1958, the construction of the country’s first NPP, Latina, began. This 200 MW(e) gas–graphite reactor (magnox, from magnesium alloy used in the fuel cans) was connected to the electric grid in May 1963. It was ordered by SIMEA, an ENI subsidiary, and contracted from the Nuclear Power Plant Company (NPPC) of the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority was to offer support for the safety aspects.

In November 1959, construction work on the Garigliano NPP began. A boiling water reactor (BWR) prototype was ordered by the Societŕ elettro nucleare nazionale (SENN) from International General Electric. In January 1964, the 150 MW(e) Garigliano reactor started operation.

The Trino Vercellese NPP, a Westinghouse pressurized water reactor (PWR) with two separate turbine systems, was ordered by the Societŕ elettro nucleare Italiana (SELNI), a subsidiary of the Edison group. Construction on the 260 MW(e) Trino Vercellese began in August 1961. It entered commercial operation in October 1964.

A general rule, Act No. 1860, to regulate the peaceful use of nuclear energy, was issued for the first time in December 1962. This law assigned CNEN the role of nuclear regulatory body and foresaw the issuance of a subsequent law for radioactive protection of population and workers.

The safety criteria during this pioneering period were adopted from countries exporting nuclear technology (mainly the United Kingdom and the United States of America).

In 1962, after some political challenges, the electric sector was nationalized and ENEL was established as the sole utility.

In February 1964, the Government issued a complete set of regulations, the Decree of the President of Republic (DPR) No. 185/64 to cover in detail the different aspects of nuclear safety and radiation protection. CNEN was confirmed as the official regulatory body. However, this responsibility created an inherent conflict of interest between its role as a public promoter of nuclear technology and as a regulator.

In 1964, the ownership of Latina NPP was transferred to ENEL, and, in 1965, the Garigliano and Trino units were also transferred to ENEL, hence closing the first period of Italian nuclear history.

2.1.1.2. Planning period

In December 1966, ENEL announced a huge nuclear programme, forecasting 12 000 MW of nuclear power by 1980. A year later, in 1967, the Comitato interministeriale per la programmazione economica (CIPE) —in charge of coordinating the activities of ministries involved in the country’s economic planning and of defining the nuclear programme of ENEL — reorganized the nuclear sector. Among the most important actors (all state owned companies) were:

1. ENEL, which maintained its position as the sole utility;

2. ENI, which was in charge of nuclear fuel;

3. Ansaldo, which was in charge of collaborating with foreign suppliers and later became the Italian nuclear components supplier.

In 1967, an agreement was signed by CNEN and ENEL to develop an Italian version of the Canada deuterium–uranium (CANDU) reactor. This reactor type, called CIRENE, was designed to use heavy water as a moderator and boiling water as a coolant. In 1972, Ansaldo received an order to build a 40 MW(e) prototype close to the Latina NPP. CISE actively participated in the design and construction of the CIRENE reactor, which, however, never became operational due to technical problems and the lack of economic resources. Its construction was suspended in 1988.

In 1969, ENEL decided to build a BWR (General Electric BWR 4, Mark 2) on the site of Caorso. One year later, Ansaldo, in a joint venture with General Electric, officially received the order. The Caorso site construction began in 1970. After several delays in implementing improvements in the suppression pool and bolstering thermal fuel performance, this 860 MW(e) unit finally started commercial operation in 1981.

Following oil crises in 1974, the Ministry of Industry approved a National Energy Plan that foresaw the construction of 20 NPPs in order to reduce the share of oil in the Italian energy balance. A primary effort during that period was also to achieve a certain level of technological independence from foreign licensers. Political indecision led the industry to spread technical and economic resources over five different reactor types, namely, the General Electric BWR, the Westinghouse and Babcock PWRs, the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited CANDU and the indigenous CIRENE.

To attain the goals of the new energy plan, the Government in 1973 joined the EURODIF consortium. AGIP Nucleare, a subsidiary of ENI, and CNEN were in charge of providing the country with enriched uranium for fuel fabrication. Meanwhile, in 1972, Ansaldo — in a joint venture with General Electric — completed the Fabbricazioni nucleari (Bosco Marengo) to manufacture the fuel elements for the future BWRs. The plant was able to produce 100 tonnes of fuel annually. It started operation in 1976 and has produced more than 500 tonnes of fuel for the Italian nuclear power stations and Leibstadt nuclear power station in Switzerland.

Later, in December 1973, three major European utilities signed an agreement to build a Superphénix, 1200 MW(e) fast breeder reactor in France. A second smaller station was planned in Germany. The three original partners were Électricité de France (EDF), ENEL and Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk (RWE). Subsequently, RWE was substituted by Schnell-Bruter Kernkraftwerkgesellschaft (SBK), a joint enterprise of RWE, Belgian and Dutch utilities and, to a lesser extent, the UK Central Electricity Generating Board. Under the terms of this agreement the NERSA company was created in 1974 to undertake the construction of the Creys-Malville station. EDF’s share of NERSA was 51%, ENEL had 33% and SBK had 16%. Preliminary work on the Creys-Malville site started in December 1974. The first concrete was laid in December 1976. The reactor began operation in January 1986. Earlier, in 1983, construction had begun in Italy of the Prova elementi di combustible (PEC) plant for testing fast breeder fuel elements. This was intended to strengthen Italy’s participation in the Superphénix venture.

In 1976, Montalto di Castro was selected as the site for two new BWRs (General Electric BWR 4, Mark 3). The site permit was issued in 1979, exactly one month before the Three Mile Island accident. This, along with the active opposition of environmental movements, delayed the implementation of the energy plan. Moreover, ENEL faced increasing difficulties with its nuclear power stations and conventional power plants with the construction of the transmission system. During the 1980s, the nuclear option became a major political issue, almost completely halting all nuclear activities despite the commitments of several energy plans.

The National Energy Plan of 1982 reflected mixed attitudes. It called for two nuclear units at Montalto di Castro and six other units on three different sites (Piemonte, Lombardia and Puglia). The plan also identified the development of the Progetto unificato nazionale (PUN), a Westinghouse PWR, as the final reactor type for the country. The most important characteristic of PUN design was to standardize nuclear plant design and construction. The Ente nazionale per la ricerca e lo sviluppo dell’energia nucleare e delle energie alternative (ENEA), formerly CNEN, was split into two major branches: ENEA, responsible for research and promotion of nuclear technology, and ENEA/DISP, an independent nuclear regulatory body.

2.1.1.3. Post referenda (disengagement) period

In 1986, a few months before the Chornobyl accident, CIPE reaffirmed its commitment to the two BWR units at Montalto di Castro and the six PUN type PWRs. However, the impact of the Chornobyl accident on public opinion was enormous and a general debate on the implications of the use of nuclear energy inflamed the contest in the political arena. In November 1987, three referenda were passed that essentially stopped any progressive activities in the nuclear sector.

In December 1987, CIPE halted construction of the Montalto di Castro and Piemonte plants. These were the only two sites where construction work was effectively in progress. A nuclear moratorium period of five years went into effect.

In June 1988, the Government ended all nuclear construction. The Caorso reactor, which was shut down in October 1986 for annual refuelling remained in cold shutdown for a complete safety review and assessment. In 1989, the Operational Safety Assessment Review Team (OSART), under the aegis of the IAEA, inspected the Caorso plant. Despite the positive results of both reviews, CIPE decided in July 1990 to close down the plant. At the same time, the Trino NPP was closed. The remaining units of Garigliano and Latina had already been closed down in August 1978 and November 1986, respectively.

At the same time, ENEA decided to close a number of facilities relevant to the fuel cycle: Impianto di fabbricazione elementi di combustibile (IFEC); EUREX (enriched uranium extraction); Impianto di trattamento e rifabbricazione elementi di combustibile (ITREC); and the plutonium plant at its Casaccia Centre. In fact, Italy is currently inactive in the nuclear energy sector.

In 2009, the Government, with the aim of restarting the nuclear power programme, promulgated Act No. 99, establishing the necessary legislative provisions. Other legislative decrees were subsequently issued or were in preparation. It should be noted that, as provided by Art. 29 of Act No. 99, the new Nuclear Safety Agency with the role of regulatory body was established to be composed by the structures and resources of the nuclear department of Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA) and by resources from ENEA. However, as provided by Legislative Decree No. 187 of 2017, the National Inspectorate for Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (ISIN), the nuclear regulatory authority, has been fully established and has been formally operating since 1 August 2018.

More recently, Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010 establishes a new procedure for the localization and construction of a national repository for low level waste (LLW) disposal and intermediate level waste (ILW) and high level waste (HLW) long term storage and assigns SOGIN responsibility for the construction and operation of the repository. Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010 also assigns SOGIN responsibility for proposing areas suitable for the location of the repository, based upon criteria established by the IAEA and the new national Agency for Nuclear Safety and taking into account results of the Strategic Environmental Evaluation. The steps to take in order to realize a national storage facility, including public consultation, are described alongside the time frames to perform each of them.

In connection with the commitments made in the intergovernmental agreement between Italy and France (see Section 2.7) with regards to the return of the waste resulting from the reprocessing of spent fuel, Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010, as subsequently amended, establishes all the steps and timeframes, including public consultation, for the siting procedure of the national site for the LLW repository and for ILW and HLW long term storage. The same decree assigns SOGIN responsibility for the siting, construction and operation of the national repository.

After the referendum held in June 2011, the planned programme was stopped.

In the context of the privatization and liberalization of the electric energy market, and in accordance with Legislative Decree No. 79 of 16 March 1999, all ENEL’s liabilities and assets (and all capabilities and resources) connected to nuclear power were assigned to the newly established company SOGIN, which has been operational since 1 November 1999. Its shares were transferred in 2000 to the Ministry of Treasure (now MEF); however, SOGIN acts according to guidelines issued by the MSE (formerly the Ministry of Industry).

The mission of SOGIN covers:

1. The decommissioning of NPPs in Italy;

2. The decommissioning of fuel cycle plants, which are the property of ENEA and Fabbricazioni nucleari, but whose licences have been transferred to SOGIN;

3. The disposal of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) resulting from past operation and dismantling activities;

4. The temporary storage of HLW (resulting from the reprocessing of fuel) and of the non-reprocessed spent fuel;

5. The management of the spent fuel and the nuclear materials.

Authorizations are granted by the MSE, on the basis of the technical advice of ISIN, the national nuclear authority. ISIN is a technical body governed by public law with operational and administrative autonomy. It is responsible for the regulation and supervision (by inspection) of nuclear installations in the matter of nuclear safety and radiation protection.

The MATTM is the authority responsible for determining the environmental compatibility of nuclear projects, including decommissioning of nuclear power stations and other reactors.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor Unit	Type	Net Capacity [MW(e)]	Status	Operator	Reactor Supplier	Construction Date	First Criticality Date	First Grid Date	Commercial Date	Shutdown Date	UCF for 2018
CAORSO	BWR	860	Permanent Shutdown	SOGIN	AMN/GETS	1970-01-01	1977-12-31	1978-05-23	1981-12-01	1990-07-01
ENRICO FERMI	PWR	260	Permanent Shutdown	SOGIN	EL/WEST	1961-07-01	1964-06-21	1964-10-22	1965-01-01	1990-07-01
GARIGLIANO	BWR	150	Permanent Shutdown	SOGIN	GE	1959-11-01	1963-06-05	1964-01-01	1964-06-01	1982-03-01
LATINA	GCR	153	Permanent Shutdown	SOGIN	TNPG	1958-11-01	1962-12-27	1963-05-12	1964-01-01	1987-12-01
CIRENE	HWLWR	35	Cancelled Constr.	ENELENEA	ANSALDO	1979-01-01				1988-01-01
MONTALTO DI CASTRO-1	BWR	982	Cancelled Constr.	ENEL	AMN/GETS	1982-07-01				1988-01-01
MONTALTO DI CASTRO-2	BWR	982	Cancelled Constr.	ENEL	AMN/GETS	1982-07-01				1988-01-01

Data source: IAEA - Power Reactor Information System (PRIS).

Note: Table is completely generated from PRIS data to reflect the latest available information and may be more up to date than the text of the report.

Note: BWR — boiling water reactor; const. — construction; GCR — gas cooled reactor; HWLWR — heavy water moderated, boiling light water cooled reactor; PWR — pressurized water reactor; UCF — unit capability factor.

FIG 2. Location of NPPs and other facilities.

Not applicable. Please refer to Section 2.1.1.

In 1987, a referendum was held on the use of nuclear energy. The results of the referendum were interpreted as the desire to abandon the use of nuclear energy for electricity production. After a five year moratorium, the decision to definitively shut down all Italian NPPs was taken.

2.2.3.1. Caorso

In November 1986, the plant was shut down. Initially, the decommissioning strategy of a deferred dismantling for a period of 40 to 60 years (SAFESTORE) was envisaged. In 2000, the decommissioning strategy was changed to immediate dismantling due to a new governmental decision.

All preliminary activities authorized by a specific ministerial decree, dated 8 April 2000, (turbine dismantling, partial dismantling of residual heat removal building, decontamination of primary circuit, removing of insulating materials, dismantling of off-gas systems and shipment of spent fuel to the reprocessing plant) were completed. A new decommissioning licence for the execution of remaining activities was granted in 2014. Civil works for the realization of buffer areas and a waste treatment facility in the turbine building are ongoing, together with preliminary activities for treating spent ion exchange resins abroad and a plan for restructuring temporary repositories for radioactive waste storage.

2.2.3.2. Trino

In March 1987, the plant was shut down for refuelling, which was completed in about two months. Then the plant was left in cold shutdown. The plant was in cold shutdown until 1992, when it was defuelled.

A number of systems in the conventional area have been partially or entirely dismantled or removed; the following main activities have already been performed:

• Dismantling of cooling towers (1999–2003);

• Dismantling of emergency diesel generators and demolition of the diesel building (2003);

• Decontaminating the primary circuit (2004);

• Dismantling of the thermal cycle (2001–2005);

• Dismantling of the dam (2005);

• Removal of hazardous waste from controlled and conventional areas, in particular of insulation materials containing asbestos (1999–2008);

• Removal of spent fuel (2015);

• Removal of components from the radwaste building (2015);

• Removal of non-contaminated components from the controlled area, in particular from auxiliary buildings and the reactor building (2010–2016);

• Refurbishment of the test tank building (2016);

• Dismantling of the ECCS tanks and other components (2016).

On 2 August 2012, the ministerial authorization for final decommissioning was issued.

Between June and September 2015 all the spent fuel that still present on-site was sent to the reprocessing plant in France.

Non-contaminated materials and systems in controlled areas have been dismantled and the produced spools partially sent to the final characterization in order to release them.

Some of the main constraints reported in the decommissioning licence require the availability of storage buildings, treatment and conditioning facilities and of a suitable radwaste system to manage waste and liquid effluents before starting decommissioning activities:

• Refurbishment of the on-site temporary storage buildings (D1 and D2);

• Alternative radwaste system;

• Materials management station;

• Cementation station;

• Primary system dismantling;

• Vessel and internals dismantling.

The new company strategy, reviewed in 2017, aims at anticipating some activities concerning the reactor pressure vessel and its internal structures. The final design phase is ongoing.

2.2.3.3. Garigliano

In August 1978, the plant was shut down for a crack in one of the secondary steam generators. After a number of technical analyses and following an earthquake in 1980, new safety margins were required. For economic reasons, in 1982 it was decided to close the plant and begin studies for decommissioning (SAFESTORE).

All activities for safe storage condition of the nuclear island have been performed, including sealing the reactor building and installing a new passive ventilation system. After the change of strategy, retrieval and treatment of the previously buried dry active waste is ongoing. On 28 September 2012, the ministerial authorization for final decommissioning was issued. The main decommissioning projects are: adaptation of the present radioactive waste deposits and waste management facility; dismantling the primary circuit and vessel; final remediation of the site; and demolition of the off-gas chimney.

2.2.3.4. Latina

In November 1986, the plant was shut down for planned maintenance. In 1987, following the referendum, the plant was taken out of service by a governmental decision.

Almost all activities for safe storage condition of the nuclear island had been performed, according to the previously selected strategy (SAFESTORE).

The issuance of the Authorization Decree for the Prompt Decommissioning of Latina NPP (1st phase) by the MSE (formerly of Productive Activities) is currently pending. At present, the status of decommissioning activities is as follows:

• Cleanup and decontamination operations on pond; Step 1: Removal of large components.

• Dismantling of upper ducts of the primary system.

• Demolition of the turbine building.

• Demolition of the jetty linked to sea pumps.

• Construction of a new LLW temporary repository.

• Dismantling of primary coolant circuit blowers’ shell.

Ongoing activities:

• Laboratories renovation.

• Cleanup and decontamination operations on pond; Step 2: Radioactive parts removal and sludge transfer.

• Extracting and conditioning sludge system (LECO).

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor unit	Shutdown reason	Decommission strategy	Current decommissioning phase	Current fuel management phase	Decommissioning licensee	Licence termination year
Latina	Public acceptance or political reasons Others	Immediate dismantling and removal of all radioactive materials	Waste conditioning on-site — only for decommissioning waste Final dismantling		SOGIN	2042
Garigliano	Changes in licensing requirements after an operating incident	Immediate dismantling and removal of all radioactive materials	Waste conditioning on-site — only for decommissioning waste Partial dismantling Final dismantling		SOGIN	2033
Trino Vercellese — Enrico Fermi	Public acceptance or political reasons Others	Immediate dismantling and removal of all radioactive materials	Waste conditioning on-site — only for decommissioning waste Waste shipment off-site — only for decommissioning waste Partial dismantling. Final dismantling Final survey		SOGIN	2036
Caorso	Public acceptance or political reasons Others	Immediate dismantling and removal of all radioactive materials	Waste shipment off-site — only for decommissioning waste Final dismantling		SOGIN	2034

In 2017, an international peer review of SOGIN’s decommissioning and waste management programme was organized upon request of the Government in order to obtain an independent review of activities associated with the planning and implementation of decommissioning of nuclear facilities, along with associated waste management.

The peer review team based its conclusions and recommendations on the IAEA safety standards, good international practice and other relevant IAEA recommendations in this field.

In July 2017, the team of experts convened for the IAEA Integrated Review Service for Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management, Decommissioning and Remediation (ARTEMIS), carrying out a 12 day mission to Italy to review the programme for decommissioning of nuclear facilities, including activities related to the management of radioactive waste.

In undertaking the peer review, the team concluded that the cost estimate process was robust and thorough and aligned with recognized methodologies; the sequencing and approach to decommissioning activities were appropriate, when constraints such as the availability of radioactive waste disposal capacity are taken into consideration; and the techniques and technologies utilized are proven and well tested.

In Italy, there are no facilities for enriching uranium. Several installations have the capability to manufacture fuel elements; however, all are closed.

Fuel fabrication plants and research facilities are no longer in operation and will need to be decommissioned. The situation is summarized in Table 7.

TABLE 7. FUEL FABRICATION AND RESEARCH FACILITIES

Facility	Main past activities	Main decommissioning issues
EUREX: Pilot reprocessing plant (Saluggia)	Spent fuel reprocessing	Solidification of liquid waste
FN: Industrial fabrication plant (Bosco Marengo)	Fabrication of fuel assemblies for light water reactors	Residual nuclear material removal
OPEC: Post irradiation examination facility (Rome)	Post irradiation examination of spent fuel Spent fuel encapsulation	Removal of spent fuel scrap Waste management
PLUTONIUM: Pilot fuel fabrication plant (Rome)	Sol-gel process development Fuel fabrication for the AECL Chalk River Reactor	Removal of residual nuclear material Glovebox dismantling
ITREC: Pilot reprocessing and re-fabrication plant (Trisaia)	Reprocessing of Elk River spent fuel (U–Th) assemblies	Solidification of U–Th highly radioactive solution

The licences of these facilities were transferred to SOGIN at the end of 2003. Decommissioning of these facilities is primarily driven by waste management considerations, due to the preliminary treatment activities, mainly aimed to a safe storage, that have produced a wide range of small homogeneous waste stream present on these sites.

All the spent fuel was sent to reprocessing since the early years of operation of the Italian NPPs until the mid-1990s, when ENEL decided to terminate nuclear fuel reprocessing based on an economic and technical evaluation and decided to proceed with interim dry storage of the remaining spent fuel of light water reactors. At that moment, only the fuel related to contracts already issued was sent to British Nuclear Fuels Ltd (BNFL, now Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, NDA) for reprocessing. From mid-1990 to March 2006, the strategy was to store fuel elements in dual purpose (transport and storage) metallic casks in interim storage spaces on nuclear sites and move them to the national repository for radioactive waste once it would become in operation. The storage would be continued there, waiting for a final (geological) disposal.

In March 2006, the MSE changed the national strategy for the spent fuel still stored in Italy from the dry storage into reprocessing, except for the strategy about Elk River spent fuel, which remained unchanged.

As consequence of the change of strategy, in November 2006 the Governments of Italy and France signed an intergovernmental agreement that let SOGIN and ORANO (formerly AREVA) to sign a contract in April 2007 for transport and reprocessing in France the spent fuel stored in Italy, except the Elk River spent fuel.

Up today the following activities has been performed in compliance with the intergovernmental agreement and the contract:

• Delivery in France of all the spent fuel stored at Caorso and Trino NPPs;

• Partial delivery of the spent fuel stored at Deposito Avogadro facility.

The sources of radioactive waste in Italy include the power plants formerly operated by ENEL, the fuel cycle plants operated by Fabbricazioni nucleari, ENEA research laboratories and experimental facilities, and non-energy applications (e.g. biomedical and other uses).

Criteria applicable to the classification, treatment and disposal of radioactive waste are set forth in ENEA/DISP’s Technical Guide No. 26, issued in May 1988 and updated in 1997 and in the Ministerial Decree of 7 August 2015. These rules allow above ground disposal of treated LLW (Categories I and II) and prescribe suitable final disposal solutions (such as deep disposal) for HLW (Category III). As for Categories I and II, solid LLW is to be supercompacted and cemented. Liquid LLW is to be cemented in containers suitable for above ground storage.

Part of the radioactive waste in Italy was produced during the operation of the nuclear installations connected to the national nuclear power programme. Another significant amount of waste will result from the decommissioning activities, as well as from the return of the high and intermediate levels of reprocessed and conditioned waste.

In addition, an annual quantity of radioactive waste to be managed is produced by R&D, medical and industrial uses.

At present, almost all the waste generated by the operation of nuclear installations is stored on-site.

In March 2008, the MSE appointed a committee with representatives from ministries, regions, ISPRA (now ISIN) and ENEA with a mandate to define the procedures for identifying suitable areas and for selecting a national site for the storage of radioactive waste. This committee issued a report in September 2008.

More recently, in connection with the road map associated with the agreement for the reprocessing in France the spent fuel, Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010 establishes the new procedure for the localization and construction of a national repository for LLW disposal and ILW and HLW long term storage and assigns SOGIN responsibility for the construction and operation of the national repository.

Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010 also assigns SOGIN responsibility for proposing suitable areas for the national repository based upon criteria established by the IAEA and the new national Agency for Nuclear Safety, taking into account the results of a strategic environmental assessment.

The steps to be taken in order to realize a national storage facility are described below, together with the time frames to perform each of them.

First, a list of suitable areas is proposed by the implementer (SOGIN). Such a list should be defined based upon requirements from the IAEA and the new Italian Agency for Nuclear Safety.

After this preliminary selection, a period for public consultation is foreseen. SOGIN will organize a public presentation and invite the central and local interested administrations.

Once the potential sites are approved by the Agency for Nuclear Safety, SOGIN will invite the regions involved to present their interest within 60 days. Once one (or more) region shows interest, SOGIN will investigate the site extensively and submit a request for authorization to the regulatory body. A one step licence is envisaged (i.e. the authorization is given for construction, operation and closure).

In the event of a lack of interest, SOGIN will submit to the MSE the list of the candidate areas, indicating the three most suitable sites, and within 30 days an interinstitutional committee will be created, with the participation of representatives from different ministries and regions, and with the task of reaching an agreement with one of the interested regions.

While waiting for a national repository site to become available, the radioactive waste will continue to be stored in the nuclear installations of origin. Interventions are in progress to enhance the safety level of waste by implementing specific treatment and conditioning projects and by refurbishing existing buildings or utilizing authorized new interim storage facilities on-site, in order to ensure temporary storage capacity for waste resulting from decommissioning preliminary activities.

Nuclear research is conducted by several agencies, institutions and universities. The leading agency for applied nuclear research is ENEA, with its Energy Research Centre (CRE) at Casaccia, near Rome, and at Bologna and Brasimone in Emilia Romagna.

Theoretical research in the nuclear field is performed mainly under the aegis of Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche (CNR) and Istituto nazionale di fisica nucleare (INFN) in its four main laboratories: Laboratori nazionali di frascati, Laboratori nazionali di legnano, Laboratori nazionali del sud and the new Laboratori nazionali del gran sasso.

In nuclear engineering, the universities with degree programmes are the Sapienza University of Rome, the University of Pisa, the Polytechnic University of Milan, the Polytechnic University of Turin and the University of Palermo.

Research and study of the emerging technologies in the field of decommissioning and waste management is engaged in by SOGIN itself or in cooperation with universities and research centres.

Some research activities, experiments and studies, mainly in connection with the universities and agencies listed in Section 2.8.1, are still conducted at the facilities equipped with research reactors, as shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8. RESEARCH REACTORS

Site	Power	Operator	Status
Palermo	20 W	University of Palermo	In operation
Roma (Casaccia)	1 MW	ENEA/TRIGA	In operation
Roma (Casaccia)	5 kW	ENEA/TAPIRO	In operation
Pavia	250 kW	University of Pavia	In operation

Source: IAEA Research Reactor Database.

In 2003, Italy and the Russian Federation signed an agreement allocating €360 million for cooperation in the area of nuclear submarine dismantling and safe handling of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste. The agreement includes projects on nuclear submarine, nuclear surface ship and service ship dismantling; reprocessing, transport and storage of radioactive waste; creation of a nuclear site physical protection system; radiation site rehabilitation; and creation of infrastructure for nuclear submarine dismantling. The Russian Atomic Ministry and the Italian Ministry of Productive Activities (now MSE) are responsible for the projects. The agreement is valid for ten years and extends automatically for additional two years if the parties do not cancel the agreement before its expiry.

In the frame of Generation IV (Gen-IV) nuclear fission, the activities performed in Italy are related to the design and technological development of lead cooled fast reactors (LFRs). These activities are led by ENEA in synergy with the national industries, mainly Ansaldo nucleare, and supported by the Interuniversity Consortium for Technological Nuclear Research (CIRTEN).

Presently, the R&D programme is supported by national funds (Programme Agreement MSE–ENEA) and European funds (Euratom, H2020). Thanks to such efforts the readiness of LFR technology has moved forward significantly, and is constantly increasing, attracting a strong interest worldwide.

At the European level, ENEA, Ansaldo nucleare and the Institute for Nuclear Research (ICN, Romania), with many other supporting organizations, are collaborating on the Advanced Lead Fast Reactor European Demonstrator (ALFRED) programme, an undertaking presently representing the last step required for industrial deployment. Leveraging this, the project has secured a firm commitment by the Government of Romania and the support of the Government of Italy.

Owing to its increased safety margins, robust design and scalable size, ALFRED is considered the optimum candidate to bridge the gap between research and commercial deployment. Since the end of 2013, an international consortium fostering ALFRED construction (FALCON) has been set up, acting as the incubator of the initiative and a pole of attraction for partners interested in LFR technology, paving the way for the construction in Romania of the first Gen-IV LFR demonstrator.

Italy also participates in several international cooperation projects developed under the aegis of the European Community, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) and the IAEA. Two important research centres are the Joint Research Centre of ISPRA and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, operated with the IAEA.

In the area of nuclear safety and environmental protection, bilateral agreements have been signed with the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the UK Office for Nuclear Regulation, the Nuclear Safety Council (CSN, Spain), the National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA, China) and the General Directorate for Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (DGSNR, France).

Due to the forthcoming shutdown of the Canadian National Research Universal (NRU) reactor and the contemporary stoppage of the authorization process of the MAPLE-1 reactor (Canada), a serious worldwide shortage of ^99mTc, the central radiopharmaceutical product in nuclear medical diagnostics is foreseen. Thus, ENEA recently started a project aimed at producing ⁹⁹Mo (precursor of ^99mTc) by neutron activation of ⁹⁸Mo target at TRIGA Research Reactor, operated at ENEA Casaccia Research Centre.

Some noteworthy activities in progress are in the field of nuclear fusion, with participation in international projects.

The Italian regulatory system relating to nuclear and radiation safety is the result of an evolution of rules and standards that began in the early 1960s and that considers the experiences of the licensing and operation of different types and generations of NPP and other nuclear installation. The system also covers the regulatory framework for the safe management of spent fuel and radioactive waste.

The main regulations are acts of Parliament, legislative decrees, governmental or ministerial decrees binding in law. Technical positions and guides issued by ISIN (formerly ISPRA) are also considered.

The legislative and regulatory framework, established since the early 1960s, envisages a system of licensing of nuclear installations and activities as well as regulatory control. This system fully applies to spent fuel and radioactive waste management activities.

3.1.1.1. Nuclear Safety Authority

3.1.1.2. Prime minister

3.1.1.3. Ministry of Economic Development

3.1.1.4. Ministry of Labour and Social Policy

3.1.1.5. Ministry of Health

3.1.1.6. Ministry of the Environment and Protection of Land and Sea

3.1.1.7. Ministry of the Interior

3.1.1.8. Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport

3.1.1.9. Ministry of Education, University and Research

3.1.1.10. Ministry of Economy and Finance

3.1.1.11. Ministry of Foreign Affairs

The licensing body is the MSE, based upon the cooperation of other competent ministries and the binding technical advice of ISIN, which is entrusted with the role of regulatory authority, performing assessments and inspections of nuclear installations.

The main competencies of regulatory authorities and their role in the licensing process are described in the previous paragraph.

More recently, Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010 establishes a new procedure for the localization and construction of a national repository for LLW disposal and ILW and HLW long term storage and assigns SOGIN responsibility for the construction and operation of the repository. Legislative Decree No. 31 of 2010 also assigns SOGIN responsibility for proposing areas suitable for the localization of the repository, based upon criteria established by the IAEA and the new national Agency for Nuclear Safety, taking into account the results of the strategic environmental assessment. The steps to be taken to realize a national storage facility, including public consultation, are described, together with the time frames to perform each of them.