2.  NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1.   Historical Development and current nuclear power organizational structure

2.1.1.   Overview

Nuclear activities in Korea were initiated in 1957 when Korea became a member of the IAEA. In 1959, the Office of Atomic Energy was established as a government organization in conformity with the global trend toward developing peaceful uses of atomic energy. The Atomic Energy Law was promulgated in the preceding year.

The Republic of Korea has carried out a very ambitious nuclear power program since the 1970’s in parallel with the nation’s industrialization policy, and has maintained a strong commitment to nuclear power development as an integral part of the national energy policy aimed at reducing external vulnerability and insuring against global fossil fuel shortage. Currently, Korea has one of the most dynamic nuclear power programs in the world.

During the early years of nuclear power development, power plants were constructed mostly through “Turn-Key” contracts, providing little opportunity for domestic industries to participate in the construction. Since then, however, domestic participation in overall construction management, design, equipment supply, and civil construction has continuously increased through the adoption of the “Non Turn-Key” approach. A high degree of technological self-reliance was achieved through the construction of Yonggwang Nuclear Units (YGN) 3 and 4 in various fields of the nuclear industry. At present, nuclear power plant technology and related fuel cycle technologies are maturing.

The first domestic reactors were 1,000 MW(e) PWRs Ulchin Unit 3 & 4, the so called Korea Standard Nuclear Power Plant (KSNP), the other called OPR1000, which entered commercial operation in 1998. The Ulchin Units 3 and 4 became the reference plant for KSNP plants thereafter. Six more KSNP plants are being built at Ulchin, Shin-Kori and Shin-Wolsong as shown in Table 8.

The newly advanced reactors are 1,400 MW (e) PWRs Shin-Kori Unit 3&4, called APR1400, which are under construction from September 2007. Those plants are evolutionally advanced in the field of technologies, safety and economy. Two more APR1400 plants are being built at Shin-Ulchin site as shown in Table 8.

2.1.2.   Current Organizational Chart(s)

In Korea, energy-related basic activities are planned and carried out by the National Energy Committee (NEC) per every 5 years according to the National Energy Fundamental Act. The chairman of the NEC is the President. The NEC is basically to establish a long-term energy strategy and to determine the direction of the national energy policy.

But nuclear-related activities are planned and carried out by various organizations such as the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST), and the Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE).

Under the Atomic Energy Act, the AEC is the highest decision-making body on policy issues and utilization of nuclear energy. The AEC is composed of nine to eleven members representing various sectors of the government, academia and industry. The chairman of the AEC is the Prime Minister.

The MEST has the overall responsibility for the nation’s nuclear research and development, regulatory and licensing works. In order to deal with important issues in nuclear safety, the NSC was established under the MEST in December 1996. The NSC consists of seven to nine members, including the Minister of Education, Science and Technology who is its chairman.

The MKE is responsible for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel supply, and the management of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste.

2.2.   Nuclear power plants: status and operations

Since the first commercial operation of Kori Unit 1 in 1978, nuclear energy has been an important energy in Korea. In spite of the slowdown of the nuclear energy industry in the U.S. and Europe, the Korean government has been steadily promoting the nuclear power generation business in response to Korea’s increasing electricity demand, seeking new sites for nuclear power plants and supporting the development of commercial technology.

As of December 2007, a total of twenty nuclear power units are in operation, and eight units are under construction or planning as shown in Table 7. Korea has more than 17 GW of nuclear power capacity, which accounts for 26.0% of its total electric power capacity. The volume of nuclear power generation in 2007 was around 143 TWh, accounting for 35.5% of total power generation. Korea also has a high capacity factor of its nuclear units, which was 90.4% in 2000, and 92.3% in 2006 as shown in Table 7 and 8.

  Source: The Third Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand (MOCIE, 2006.12).

According to the “the Third Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand”, which was finalized by MKE in December 2006, eight new nuclear power units will be constructed by 2016, including the eight units that are currently under construction or planning. The share of nuclear power capacity and nuclear power generation will be increased to 29.0% and 43.4%, respectively by 2020 as shown in Figure 4.

To enhance the safety and economy of nuclear power plants, KHNP has developed an advanced power reactor with a capacity of 1,400Mwe, called APR1400 since 1995, on the basis of the technological self-reliance of the KSNP.

The APR1400 is an improved version of a light water reactor. It is expected to be ten times safer than that of the KSNP. In terms of economic benefits, it will be more competitive than any existing nuclear power units or thermal plants. The APR1400 Standard design was certified through a stringent safety review by the Korean regulatory agency in May 2002 and appraised as the new design concept with enhanced safety and economical competitiveness. Shin-Kori Units 3 & 4 will be the first APR1400 plant and now under construction at the site adjacent to the present Kori nuclear power station. They are scheduled to start commercial operation in September 2013 and 2014 respectively by the Third Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand.

2.3.   Supply of NPPs

In 1985, the Korean government made a milestone decision to implement the national self-reliance policy and allocated the roles and duties among domestic nuclear organizations to streamline the nuclear power industry

Doosan took part of plant manufacturing by virtue of its capability to supply heavy industrial construction equipment and machinery. KOPEC was established in 1975 to foster the nation’s self-reliance in power technologies, particularly in nuclear power engineering for pressurized water reactors. KOPEC took the prime architect engineer’s responsibility. KPS was decided to provide maintenance services for all the operating nuclear power plants and 5 individual companies including Doosan are providing maintenance services for Ulchin Units 5 & 6 plants under start-up. KNF was established in November 1982 by the joint investment of KEPCO and KAERI to localize the nuclear fuel fabrication for pressurized water reactors and CANDU reactors.

The self-reliance strategy has been applied since construction of the Yonggwang 3 & 4 project. Domestic nuclear industries became the project’s prime contractors on the condition of technology support and transfer from foreign subcontractors.

2.4.   Operation of NPPs

KEPCO was the sole electrical generating utility in Korea. As mentioned in Section 1.3, KEPCO’s generation sector has been split up into five non-nuclear GENCOs and one hydro-nuclear GENCO: KHNP. KHNP is the sole entity in Korea responsible for long-term planning, development and generation of nuclear and hydro power. It has implemented a comprehensive program for improving the performance of NPPs, by being one of the world leaders in ushering in a new generation of nuclear power plant technology and development.

2.5.   Fuel Cycle and Waste Management

Fuel Cycle

Korea’s demand for Uranium and nuclear fuel cycle service has continuously increased with the expansion of its nuclear power capacity. The demand is expected to account for 5% of the world’s demand in the year 2007. Korea imports Uranium concentrates from Australia, Canada, France, Kazakhstan, the U.S. and South Africa. In 2007, Korea imported a total of 5.6 million pounds of U3O8.

KHNP, the sole consumer of nuclear fuel in Korea, has a basic guideline to ensure the stable supply of nuclear fuel and to pursue the economic efficiency at the same time by applying an international open bid. For Uranium concentrates, KHNP has tried to maintain the optimal contract condition through both long-term contracts and spot-market purchase. Whereas conversion and enrichment services come from the U.S., France, Canada, Germany and the U.K. by long-term contracts, fuel fabrication services are fully localized to meet domestic needs.

Waste Management

The Government of the Republic of Korea has striven to secure the disposal site for safe management of radioactive waste since early 1980s. The 249th meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) held in September 1998, decided “National Radioactive Waste Management Policy” aiming to construct and operate a LILW (Low and Intermediate Level Waste) disposal facility by 2008 and a spent fuel interim-storage facility by 2016. However the site selection had not been accomplished successfully. Therefore, the policy was revised at the 253rd AEC meeting held on December 17, 2004 that construction and operation of the LILW disposal facility would be accomplished by 2008, but the national policy for spent fuel management including construction of the spent fuel interim-storage facility would be finalized based on public consensus and decided in the view of technology development later on.

In June 2005, the Government of Korea issued a Public Notice on the potential selection sites for the LILW disposal facility. Gyeongju City was selected as the final candidate site in November 2005 using democratic methods such as: site suitability assessment, local referendums, acquiring residents’ trust on safety of LILW, establishing special acts (e.g. special funds, fees for carrying wastes), ensured transparency and fairness for the selection of the site (rational method of center site for LILW) (also see the Korean government’s Public Notice).

The KHNP submitted an application to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST), for the permit for both construction and operation of the proposed LILW disposal facility in January 2007 and finally got the permit on July 31, 2008. The KHNP is currently constructing the LILW disposal facility in accordance with the permit issued.

2.6.   Research and Development

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) shall formulate the National Nuclear R&D Program according to the sector-by-sector implementation plan.

The Nuclear R&D Program, otherwise called the “National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Program,” is implemented mainly by Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), Korea Cancer Center Hospital (KCCH) and Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS). Besides, industry-led R&D Programs are implemented by KHNP, Korea Power Engineering Company, Inc. (KOPEC), Korea Plant Service and Engineering (KPS) and Korea Nuclear Fuel (KNF) etc.

Originally, the “National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Program” was launched in June 1992 as a 10-year (1992-2001) program. It was modified into a new R&D program for 1997-2006 and 2007-2011 terms, to take account of major changes in national and international situations. The program is funded by both the government and the nuclear industry.

The R&D Program is focused on five research fields such as; 1) advanced reactor & fuel, 2) nuclear safety, 3) radioactive waste management, 4) application of radiation and radioisotopes, 5) fundamental technologies.

A couple of projects for development of advanced reactors and fuel cycle technology are in progress under the mid and long-term nuclear R&D program. As the near term reactor options, the Korea Next Generation Reactor (KNGR which is called APR1400) has been developed and under construction. At present, APR plus is under development. As mid and long-term reactor options, the Korea Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor (KALIMER) for power generation and a number of advanced reactors, as a member of Gen IV program, are also under development.

Even though Korea has a “wait and see policy” for spent fuel management, several alternative studies on spent fuel management have been carried out for a long time. The DUPIC program is one of the prominent approaches among the KAERI R&D activities. Also, active R&D activities on the treatment of radioactive wastes from the nuclear fuel cycles as well as the decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities are in progress.

Several research projects on the application of radiation and radioisotopes including the production of radioisotopes have been being conducted for various areas such as medicine, agriculture, food, industry etc.

2.7.   International Co-operation and Initiatives

In order to vitalize the efficient development of nuclear power utilization, international cooperation is essential in bilateral and multilateral information/personnel exchange, nuclear industry trading, and R&D. The bilateral cooperation encompasses governmental guarantee, scope and period of cooperation, and mediation of disputes regarding the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The number of bilateral international nuclear cooperation agreements, which started in 1956, has been on the increase, totaling 22 countries, with which the nuclear cooperation agreement has been concluded as of the end of 2006. Joint committees of nuclear energy between Korea and the cooperating countries are held in both countries alternately which lay the foundation for the introduction of advanced nuclear technology from developed countries.

Korea has been also making an active effort to promote the multilateral international cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The cooperation with International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) are the representative multilateral cooperation for promotion of peaceful use of nuclear energy, for which diverse cooperation activity discussions, information/personnel exchange between member countries, and international joint research have been executed.

Bilateral Nuclear Power Cooperation

The Republic of Korea’s bilateral cooperation on nuclear energy started with the Korea-U.S. Cooperation Agreement in 1956. As of the end of 2006, Korea, with its bilateral cooperation agreement on nuclear energy with 22 countries (U.S.A., Canada, France, Australia, Germany, Spain, Japan, Russia, U.K., China, Argentina, Vietnam, Turkey, Belgium, Czech, Brazil, Ukraine, Egypt, Chile, Rumania, Kazakhstan, and Indonesia), maintains the cooperation system of peaceful use/development of nuclear energy based on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

The major cooperation types of bilateral cooperation are the Joint Coordinating Committee of Nuclear Energy held in both countries in alternate years as a regular discussion body of nuclear energy for 12 countries including the USA, Canada, France, Australia, Japan, Russia, UK, Chile, China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Kazakhstan.  The bilateral cooperation with countries other than the 12 countries includes visits of high-ranking governmental officials and technical survey teams, etc.

The objectives of Korea’s bilateral cooperation on nuclear energy can be classified into two. Firstly, it is the expansion of technical exchange with developing countries to lay the foundation of nuclear technology exports. Korea’s bilateral cooperation relationship centered on nuclear cooperation agreement and joint coordinating committee extends from those with advanced countries in the 1970s and 1980 to countries in Southeast Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and South America in the 1990s and 2000s. Through the cooperation agreements, joint coordinating committees, dispatch of technical survey teams, invitation of high-ranking governmental officials, technical explanation meetings, or joint feasibility surveys for nuclear power plant introduction with developing countries, Korea aims at promoting the publicity of its nuclear technology and laying the foundation of overseas export. Secondly, it is the reinforcement of technical cooperation with advanced countries for the advancement of nuclear technology. Through the joint coordinating committees with the USA, Canada, and France, Korea continuously promotes exchange in nuclear policies, personnel exchanges, and joint research.

United States of America

The Republic of Korea’s nuclear cooperation with the U.S.A. includes the inter-governmental agreement for the use of nuclear energy for non-military purposes concluded on February 3, 1956, the agreement on the application of ensuring measures among the IAEA, between Korea and USA was established on January 5, 1968. The agreement for nuclear utilization cooperation in private sectors between Korean and US governments was established on March 19, 1973. The MOU for the exchange of nuclear safety technology information between Korean Ministry of Science and the Technology and US Nuclear Regulation Committee in June 1995; and the MOU between the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology and the US Department of Energy’s research institution was established in June 1996.

In August 1976 a MOU was established to create a joint standing committee of Korean-US nuclear energy research to promote the technical and economic cooperation of nuclear energy between the two countries. Including the peaceful use of nuclear energy research and development, the regular annual meetings were held in both countries in alternate years from the first meeting in Korea in 1977 to the 28th meeting in the US in 2007.

France

The Republic of Korea’s nuclear cooperation with France started with the Cooperation Agreement on the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy on October 19, 1974. Then there was the Agreement on the Safeguards Application among IAEA, the Korean Government, and the French Government ratified on September 22, 1975. A closer cooperative relationship started with the conclusion of the Agreement on the Establishment and Operation of the Korea-France Joint Coordinating Committee of Nuclear Energy and the Agreement on Information Exchange and Cooperation in Nuclear Safety Regulations on February 18, 1982.

Based on the Agreement on the Establishment and Operation of the Korea-France Joint Coordinating Committee of Nuclear Energy, their annual meeting was held in each country every 18 months beginning with the 1^st meeting which was held in France in February 1982 up to the 18^th meeting which was last held in Korea in April 2008 as well.

United Kingdom

With the nuclear cooperation agreement concluded in November 1991 between the Korea and the U.K., the bilateral cooperation was discussed in the Korea-UK Nuclear Energy Consultation Meeting. The 6th Nuclear Energy Consultation Meeting was held in London in June 1999. At this meeting, policy issues such as UK’s major nuclear policies, Korea’s becoming an IAEA-appointed board member country, and nuclear safety information exchange and technical issues such as RI (Radioisotope) utilization cooperation using Cyclotron and the information exchange between nuclear safety regulation organizations were discussed.

Russia

Korea’s cooperation with Russia in nuclear energy, initiated when Russia expressed its intention of supplying Korea heavy water and uranium. On December 14, 1990 the MOU on the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy between the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) and the Russian Department of Nuclear Energy was concluded, which was revised into the Cooperation Agreement on Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy between the Korean Government and the Russian Federal Government on May 28, 1999 (effective on October 8, 1999).

Based on the MOU concluded in 1990, the 1st nuclear Joint Coordinating Committee between both countries was held in March 1991 and the 4th meeting in Moscow in 1995. With the nuclear cooperation agreement concluded in 1999, the 5th nuclear joint committee was held in 2000, and the 11th joint coordinating committee was held in Seoul in December 2006.

Japan

Korea’s nuclear cooperation with Japan started with the MOU for Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy concluded between Foreign Affairs Ministers during the Korea-Japan Summit in May 1990. The MOU on Nuclear Safety Regulation Cooperation was exchanged between the MEST and the METI in February 1991 and the Nuclear Safety Cooperation Agreement was concluded between MEST and STA in December 1991.

The 1st Nuclear Cooperation Conference was held based on Article 4 of the MOU concluded in May 1990 in Seoul in November and the 8th conference was held in 2002.

In addition to the Korea-Japan Nuclear Cooperation Conference, the MEST-METI/NISA Nuclear Safety Conference is held in order to reinforce practical cooperation in nuclear safety between both countries. The Korea-Japan Nuclear Safety Conference, which had been held together with the Nuclear Cooperation Conference until the 7th meeting, started to be held separately agreeing with the suggestion by Japan, and the separate 8th conference was held in Seoul in May 2002 and the 9th conference was held in Tokyo in February 2004. And the 10th conference was held in Seoul in June 2006.

Besides the bilateral cooperation with Japan, there is also multilateral cooperation through the ICNCA which was held in Tokyo during 1990-1999, in which 9 Asian countries participated. The ICNCA changed to the FNCA in 2000 and continues till today.

During the 1st nuclear safety agreement review meeting, it became necessary to review the safety agreement and secure the cooperation between neighboring countries. As a result there was a conference among the Korea, China and Japan (MEST-NISA-NNSA) twice (1st in Tokyo on January 3, 2001 and 2nd in Japan on April 2, 2004).

China

After the establishment of the Korea-China diplomatic relationship in August 1992, the Nuclear Cooperation Agreement was concluded in October 1994 and the MOU on Nuclear Safety Cooperation was concluded in December 1994 (MEST/National Nuclear Safety Bureau Chief) to establish the foundation for nuclear cooperation.  With the Agreement on Peaceful Use/Cooperation of Nuclear between the MEST and the CAEA which was concluded to establish and operate Korea-China Joint Nuclear Committee in October 1999, the Joint Nuclear Coordinating Committee has been held since 2000.

Canada

Korea’s cooperation with Canada started with the conclusion of the contract to supply the CANDU reactor Wolsong #1 between the KEPCO and the AECL (Atomic Energy of Canada Limited) in January 1975. With the Cooperation Agreement for Peaceful Use and Application of Nuclear Energy between both countries in January 1976, the nuclear cooperation between both countries started. In September 1982, the MEST and Canadian Nuclear Committee concluded the Agreement on the Annual Report of Nuclear Materials and Nuclear Regulation Information Exchange.

In order to execute efficient nuclear cooperation, both countries concluded the MOU on the Establishment and Operation of the Korea-Canada Nuclear Joint Coordinating Committee in April 1983 (Ministry of Foreign Affairs/Ministry of Power Mining Resources, currently Ministry of Natural Resources), based on which the 1st Nuclear Joint Coordinating Committee between both countries was held in Seoul in April 1983.

In order to discuss the nuclear safety, exchange regulation areas, and discuss joint research and mutual interests besides cooperation in the area of nuclear energy utilization/development, the MOU for Nuclear Safety Regulation Cooperation was concluded between the MEST and the Canadian Nuclear Safety Committee in October 1998, which laid the foundation for the MEST-CNSC Nuclear Safety Committee to be held independent of the Joint Coordinating Committee.

Vietnam

Korea’s official cooperation with Vietnam started with the conclusion of the Agreement on the Cooperation and Research on Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy between both countries in November 1996.  The cooperation was furthered by exchange visits of Vietnamese high-ranking government policy makers and representatives of both counties. The Agreement for the Cooperation between Nuclear related Organizations was concluded between the Ministries of Science and Technology of both countries in February 2002. Based on the cooperation agreement, both countries have held bilateral nuclear cooperation consultation meeting since 2002. The training program for Vietnamese nuclear human resources has been in progress since 2005.

Australia

The Korean and Australian governments concluded an agreement on cooperation in peaceful use of Nuclear Energy on May 2, 1979 and the administrative agreement on November 25, 1983. Based on Article 9 of the agreement, both countries have been holding the Korea-Australia nuclear policy consultation meeting since February 1990.

Kazakhstan

Korea’s cooperation in nuclear with Kazakhstan was started with the conclusion of the Korea-Kazakhstan nuclear cooperation agreement between both governments on September 20, 2004. At the 1st nuclear cooperation consultation meeting held in Kazakhstan in September 2004, both countries decided to reinforce the government-level cooperation.

Multilateral cooperation

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The Board of Governors of the IAEA consists of 35 member countries. The Republic of Korea was appointed as a regional board member country at the 49th General Conference. Of the 18 Standing National Advisory Groups to support the policy decisions of the Director General of IAEA, Korea participates in 16 Standing Advisory Groups and sends representatives to meetings held twice a year. As the meeting of INSAG (International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group) was held in Seoul in April 2005, high-level policy makers came to Seoul to participate in the meeting. The IAEA’s biennial technical cooperation program executed 5 projects during 2005-2006. Based on the MOU (Memorandum of Understanding) concluded in November 1998 for the reinforcement of technical cooperation between the Korea and the IAEA, the Korea is actively hosting international technical conferences held by the IAEA and the IAEA regional training programs for the trainees from developing countries. As a result of the effort to promote improved nuclear technology and enhanced technology cooperation, the number of applications of scientific/fellowship visits to Korea is increasing every year. Visits from countries in South/Middle America and Eastern Europe have been increasing recently.  As of December 2005, the IAEA executed 125 international CRPs (Coordinated Research Programs) of which the Korea participated in 45 projects.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA)

The Republic of Korea became a member country of the OECD/NEA (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Nuclear Energy Agency) in May 1993. The Steering Committee composed of the representatives of member countries is held twice a year, in which Korea participates as a member country. Seven standing technical committees which consist of member country experts are in operation under the Steering Committee. Korea actively participates in the NEA’s current technical cooperation programs by appointing experts to participate in each technical committee.

According to its regulations, the NEA develops and executes the research programs in which the member countries jointly participate. As of the end of 2005, the NEA runs 16 international joint research projects and information exchange projects. Korea participated in 12 of the 16 projects.

Forum for Nuclear Cooperation in Asia (FNCA)

The FNCA is the organization launched by a change in part of the operational system of ICNCA (International Conference of Nuclear Cooperation in Asia). It is a forum of high-ranking governmental officials for the vitalization of nuclear cooperation in Asia such as peaceful use and joint research of nuclear energy. The 9 member countries, Korea, Japan, Australia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam, are in cooperation in 8 subject areas such as people’s understanding of nuclear energy, control of radioactive waste, etc.

The FNCA’s operational system consists of forums held in Japan and member countries in turn every December, Coordinator Meetings held in Tokyo, Japan every March, and annual workshops/seminars of project areas in which experts participate. Korea actively participates in activities of each meeting and authorized representatives for each project areas are designated by the MEST for effective execution of the projects.

Institute of Nuclear Power Operation (INPO)

KHNP exchanges technical information using the international online information exchange system operated by the INPO, collects INPO publications including nuclear power plant operation guidelines, accumulates information and promotes technical exchange through participation in academic conferences, seminars, and workshops.

World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO)

Actively participating in the operation of the Tokyo Center to which KHNP has been a member since the WANO was established in 1986, the KHNP contributed to the operation of the center by performing the role of chairman of the board from 1993 to 1995, and hosted the Tokyo Center’s working-level personnel meeting and inter-regional workshop in 1997, inter-regional workshop in 2001, and working-level personnel meeting in 2002 in Korea.

Through the international online information exchange system shared by the WANO and the INPO, the KHNP provides important information on domestic nuclear power plants and collects, analyzes, evaluates, and uses operational experience of overseas major nuclear power plants in order to improve the performance of domestic nuclear power plants.

Owners Groups (OG)

In order to improve the safety and reliability of nuclear power plants,

It is important to gain precious operational experience knowledge and be well-versed on the latest nuclear technology on a timely manner by bodies who own identical types of nuclear reactors that are housed in Korea. That is why Korea joined the following three nuclear power plant owner groups: 1) Framatome Reactor Owners Group (FROG); 2) Pressurized Water Reactor Owners Group (PWROG); 3) CANDU Owners Group (COG).

FROG was established in October 1991 and during the same year Korea joined as a member country. Korea participates in or hosts the biannual regular Steering Committee, exchanges operational information with member countries, and selects/executes the joint projects to solve current issues.

PWROG consists of 26 US-based power companies and 10 foreign-based companies; KHNP being one of the foreign based companies. As a foreign member company or better known as an associate member, Korea does not have the authority to make any relevant decisions but can collect important technical data/information. Due to these regulations it has resulted in the decreased interest among foreign member companies. The authority to decide projects depending on project participation is given with the revision of the operational regulations in March 2004. At which point foreign companies were able to suggest joint research projects on the necessary technology for the WH-type and CE-type nuclear power plants in Korea. From that time to now KHNP has been seeking active participants in these projects.

COG consists of 11 member companies including 5 Canadian-based companies and 6 foreign-based companies. KHNP joined COG in November 1986 and maintains an associate member status.

2.8.   Human Resources Development

The distribution of human resources in the nuclear industry

The total number of human resources in the Korean nuclear industry in 2006 were 20,784, which were decreased by 1.6% from the year before. All the employees were divided into groups for analysis based on the sectors they work in; nuclear plant construction and operation, nuclear safety, nuclear energy research, nuclear project support, radioactive isotope (RI) utilization.

The workforce in each sector showed some changes. The number of employees in the fields of nuclear safety and nuclear energy research rose by 6.4% and 7.3% respectively. Meanwhile, the number of workers in nuclear plant construction and operation, and nuclear project support sectors fell by 3.6% and 3.7% respectively. In particular, the field of RI showed a 5.1% decrease in the workforce due probably to advanced inspection equipment and techniques.

When nuclear-related employees were classified according to functional characteristics of their work, the number of technical workers, office workers, researchers, and general service workers was 13,990 (67.3%), 2,376 (11.4%), 2,611 (12.6%), and 1,807 (8.7%) respectively. The number of female workers was 889 (4.3% of the entire workforce), up by 188 (26.8%) compared with the previous year. This was because employers began to hire more women and, in turn, the number of female researchers and office workers in public and research institutions increased.

The distribution of the workforce in terms of educational level was as follows: 1,184 workers are holding doctorate degrees, of the total 717 (60.6%) were engaged in research institutions. 2,484 workers with master’s degrees, of the total 27.2% were employed in nuclear power plants, 22.1% in research institutions, 17.3% in nuclear design companies and 17.4% in manufacturing facilities respectively. 9,835 college graduates, of the total 3,944 (40.1%) worked in nuclear power plants.

From 2000 to 2006, the number of employees in the fields of nuclear power plants, designing, manufacturing, research and public institutions have steadily risen due to the increased work regarding nuclear plant facilities, research, and management. However, the size of the workforce in construction, trading and the service sector has shrunk mainly because of the accumulated technology and the reduced number of workers required.

Personnel training in the nuclear industry

Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. (KHNP) has built and run 20 nuclear power units and 6 more units are now under construction. It has approximately 6,611 workers including 5,771 workers who works at nuclear power plants and construction sites, and 840 workers at headquarter. The company has been looking for and employing high-quality university and community college graduates, and has been training employees at its Nuclear Power Education Institute and other training and education centers within and outside the company.

The KHNP has been focusing its efforts on nurturing the best engineers by taking a part the 1 year OJP(On-the-Job & On-the-Project) program at overseas nuclear plants and offers employees master’s and doctor’s degree courses to upgrade their qualifications while combining theoretical knowledge and practical skills through industry-academic cooperation. In addition, KHNP set up 4 training centers at each nuclear power plant sites to provide operators with simulator training and specific system training for different types of nuclear power plants.

In 2007, KHNP revamped their training programs to deal with operational management of unexpected problems by bringing in high level specialist. Then a comprehensive improvement plan was established to upgrade operational staff. By comparing and benchmarking the international leading nuclear power plant’s Systematic Approach to Training (SAT) process and job qualification certification system, KHNP improved their SAT procedures and the job qualification cards. As a result of that, KHNP can manage training programs more effectively.

Korea Power Engineering Company, Inc. (KOPEC) has formulated and implemented talent cultivation programs to make sure that highly-skilled technical employees work more actively and independently. In particular, the company not only has internal and external training programs for new employees and professional trainees, but also provides on-the-job participation (OJP) through technical cooperation agreements with foreign architect engineering companies.

Korea Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd (KNF) was established to achieve technical independence for nuclear fuel and has been engaged in fuel design, manufacturing, repairing, and developing related technologies. The company has the total of 630 employees, of whom the number of research personnel and technical and manufacturing staff is 130 and 371 respectively, forming about 80% of the entire workforce.

Of the 501 technical workers, 316 (63%) are university graduates and 147 of them have master’s or doctor’s degrees. The company has been trying to find the best talent through industry-academic cooperation such as the Brain Korea 21 fellowship with leading universities.

Korea Plant Service and Engineering (KPS) was founded to provide high quality maintenance service for electric power plants and industry equipment. The company has 1,884 highly skilled maintenance staff whose average period of service is 15 years. The KPS also hires and educates new workers regularly to maintain know-how and fill the shortage of staff.

Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction Co., Ltd, a design and manufacturing company of nuclear power plants, came under private management in 2001 and was reorganized into six business divisions. During the process, its Nuclear Business Group was officially launched. Because of the characteristics of its work, the company has more than 91% of the group’s management staff graduated from technology institutes, and about 70% of them majored in Mechanical Engineering.

Student training in academic and research institutions

Seoul National University’s Department of Nuclear Engineering has 11 professors, 132 undergraduates, 40 students in the master’s course, and 14 PhD candidates. They are working on core nuclear design analysis and thermal-hydraulics. Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)’s Department of Nuclear & Quantum Engineering, which has 17 professors, 29 undergraduates, 38 master’s course students, and 67 PhD candidates, offers research-focused education. Other colleges including Hanyang University, Kyunghee University, Chosun University, and Cheju National University set up a nuclear-related department and have been educating approximately 870 students.

The Nuclear Training Center (NTC) of Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) provides a wide range of training courses to nurture domestic and foreign nuclear personnel and implements various projects to contribute to the nation’s technical independence in nuclear power generation and development of new technologies.

Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS), the country’s nuclear safety regulator, has established and run the Nuclear Safety School (NSS) to train nuclear safety regulation staff and educate nuclear industry workers, students, and the general public on the information regarding nuclear safety. NSS, which is the trusted educational center for radioactive disaster prevention staff, supervises and manages the six educational institutions authorized by the government and the nation’s entire staff in radioactive disaster prevention.

3.  NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1.   Safety Authority and the Licensing Process

3.1.1.   Safety Authority

The assurance of nuclear safety is the highest priority in the use and development of nuclear energy in Korea. The goal is to protect plant personnel and neighboring inhabitants by keeping radiation effects as low as possible.

Nuclear regulatory organizations are mainly composed of MEST as a regulatory authority, the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), and Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) as a technical expert body. There is also Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) under the jurisdiction of the Prime Minister, as the supreme organization for decision making on national nuclear policy. The NSC is independent of the AEC.

The MEST has the overall responsibility for ensuring the protection of public health and safety through regulatory control and safety inspections, based on the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act. The KINS, entrusted with the regulatory works by the MEST, carries out technical assessments according to the licensing documents prepared by the utility and conducts safety inspections on all nuclear facilities. The basic concept of nuclear safety is not only to protect public health and safety from radiation hazards, but also to protect the environment from any subsequent harmful effects.

In September 1994, The MEST issued the “Nuclear Safety Policy Statement” containing five regulatory principles of nuclear safety: “Independence, Openness, Clarity, Efficiency, and Reliability” in order to secure consistency, adequacy, and rationality of regulatory activities. The Nuclear Safety Policy Statement declares that securing safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilization of nuclear energy, and that all personnel engaged in nuclear activities must adhere to the principle of “priority to safety.” It emphasizes the importance of developing the nuclear safety culture that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has referred to.

It also prescribes that the ultimate responsibility for nuclear safety rests with the operating organizations of nuclear installations, and is in no way diluted by the separate activities and responsibilities of designers, suppliers, constructors, or regulators. Finally, it prescribes that the government shall fulfill its overall responsibility to protect the public and the environment from radiation hazards that might accompany the development and utilization of nuclear energy.

3.1.2.   Licensing Procedures

Regulation and licensing procedures for nuclear power plants in Korea are divided into three stages:

• In the site selection stage, the conceptual design is examined to determine the appropriateness of the proposed site. The safety requirements of the site are reviewed from the standpoints of the design, the construction, and the operation of the plant
• For the construction permit, the utility submits a Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) and an overall quality assurance program for the Project along with the reference design of the plant. Additionally, the utility is required to prepare an environmental impact statement
• When the utility requests an operating license, the MEST must confirm that the as-built plant conforms to the submitted design. In this stage, operational technical specification, and emergency plans and procedures against radiation hazards are submitted

Regulatory inspections of NPPs under construction or in operation are implemented according to the procedure of a pre-operational inspection of the nuclear installation, a periodic inspection of the operating nuclear installations, a quality assurance audit, a daily inspection by resident inspectors, and a special inspection.

In compliance with the Article of the Convention on Nuclear Safety, the Periodic Safety Review (PSR) was adopted by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) through technical review by the Nuclear Safety Commission as a safety evaluation process during the lifetime of operating nuclear power plants to maintain the safety level at current safety standards and practices in 1999. The Atomic Energy Act (AEA) was amended to establish the definite provisions for PSR implementation in 2001.

Kori Unit 1 was designated as the first plant to apply a PSR in Korea and the KHNP implemented the PSR for Kori Unit 1 from May 2000 to October 2002. The result was submitted to the MEST in November 2002 for intensive review.

Subsequently, the PSRs for other plants which were operated for more than 10 years such as Kori Units 2, 3, 4, Wolsong Unit 2, Yonggwang Units 1, 2, 3, 4 and Ulchin Units 1, 2 were implemented by May 2008. The PSRs for Wolsong Units 3, 4 and Ulchin 3, 4 are in progress. The PSRs for the remaining Plants, which are Yonggwang Units 5, 6 and Ulchin Units 5, 6, will be implemented in 2011 and 2013 respectively. The 2^nd PSRs will be begun in 2013 for Kori Unit 2.

The Korean government is continually improving its nuclear control system as the amount of domestic nuclear material increases in parallel with the growth of the nuclear industry. The government established a State System for the Accounting and Control of nuclear materials (SSAC) within the MEST. In order to develop nuclear control technology and to technically assist the government, the Technology Center for Nuclear Control (TCNC) at KAERI was established in 1994. The Korean government launched the National Nuclear Management and Control Agency (NNCA), an independent watchdog, in October 2004.  NNCA was expanded into the Korea Institute of Nonproliferation and Control (KINAC) in June 2006, to enhance the country’s nuclear transparency.

3.1.3.   Radiation Protection Policy

The Atomic Energy Act prescribes the basic matters on radiation protection to be applied to nuclear installations, as follows:

• provisions on protective measures against radiation hazards that keep the radioactive material release and the occupational radiation exposure as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA)
• provisions on safety measures relating to operations stipulating the necessary actions to be taken for protecting human life, materials, and the environment from radiation hazards which may accompany the operation of nuclear installations
• performance criteria for the personnel dosimetry service for radiation workers or persons having access to nuclear installations; and
• training requirements for the workforce involving radiation exposure

The Enforcement Decree and Enforcement Regulation of the Atomic Energy Act specify the details necessary for implementing the basic matters referred to in the Act. Also a notice from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (titled “Radiation Protection Standards”) prescribes technical requirements on radiation protection such as the conditions of radioactive effluent release and dose limits.

The safety regulatory activities for radiation protection are classified into safety reviews, regulatory inspections, and the development of technical standards. In the safety review, items are examined concerning ALARA assurance of radiation exposure to workers, source term assessment, characteristics of radiation protection design, dose assessment, a health physics program, and the appropriateness of equipment.

The regulatory inspection confirms whether or not the radiation monitoring system in nuclear installations is properly operated. It also confirms that any personal exposure to radiation is maintained, ‘As Low As Reasonably Achievable’ (ALARA), by checking the health physics program, the procedures for the radiation exposure control, the ALARA program, and radiation work management.

Korea has developed the ‘Information System on Integrated Radiation Safety’ (ISIRS). This system can easily trace and monitor all processes related to the use of radioactive sources from production and importation to final disposal through the Internet. ISIRS can provide more accurate and extensive information on radiation safety on a real time basis to the general public and to all other related organizations.

3.1.4.   National Environmental Radiation Monitoring Network

The KINS, entrusted by the MEST, installs and operates the nation-wide environment radiation monitoring network in addition to the above safety regulatory activities. KINS measures the radioactivity in airborne dust, fallout, rainwater, livestock products, farm products, soil, drinking water, and background radiation levels throughout the nation. This enables KINS to quickly detect and properly respond to any abnormal situations or symptoms in environmental radioactivity.

The nationwide environmental radiation monitoring network consists of an environmental radiation monitoring center in KINS, local monitoring stations situated at ten cities with a large population, monitoring posts located in Ulnong-do and Baekryong-do, which are islands located far away from the peninsula in the eastern and western seas respectively, monitoring posts around four nuclear installation sites, and a monitoring network connected with a military monitoring post.

3.2.   Main National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power

The Korean government promulgated the Atomic Energy Act as a fundamental piece of legislation to regulate the nuclear activities in Korea. The regulatory organizations and functions are also described in the Act. The MEST has ultimate responsibility for the protection of the public and environment, while the prime responsibility rests with the utility.

The legislative system of the Atomic Energy Act has several levels according to origination and applicability, i.e., the Atomic Energy Act, Enforcement Decree of the Act, Enforcement Regulation of the Act, Notice of the Minister of MEST, and Technical Specification which is a part of the safety analysis reports. The regulatory authority for regulating nuclear industry activities is based on the Atomic Energy Act. In conformity with the atomic energy laws, the licensee submits to the MEST various documents demonstrating the adequacy of the proposed design.

There are two major legislative instruments regarding civil nuclear third party liability, namely the “Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage” (so-called Compensation Act) and the “Act on Indemnification Agreements for Nuclear Liability” (so-called Indemnity Agreement Act).

Reflecting developments in related international conventions, the Compensation Act was amended in December 2000 and entered into force on January 16, 2001. Highlights the of amendment are as follows; Expansion of applicable scope not only to nuclear incidents in the territory but also in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ);

• Increase of operator’s liability to 300 million SDRs

• Extension and clarification of the definition for “nuclear damage” according to the 1997 Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention

• Exclusion of a grave natural disaster such as earthquakes from exonerations

• Extension of prescription period for personal injury to 30 years

A Nuclear Damage Compensation Deliberation Committee within MEST co-ordinates extra-judicial settlement of claims for nuclear damage compensation and surveys and evaluates nuclear damage.

In 2001, the Atomic Energy Act was amended to reflect the reorganization of the government, deregulation, and the rearrangement of the legal system. The relevant lower level enactment was completed in the first half of 2000. Subsequently, the Atomic Energy Act was amended again in 2001 to take into account the strengthening of nuclear safety as follows;

• Increase of NSC members to guarantee more participation of specialists in the policy and decision-making process
• Introduction of the Periodic Safety Review (PSR) to ensure that the safety of operating NPPs is maintained at current safety standards and practices
• Introduction of the Standard Design Certificate to streamline the licensing process for the construction of NPPs with same design
• Introduction of the ICRP Pub. 60 on a step-by-step basis with full implementation starting in January 2003

In 2005, the Atomic Energy Act (AEA) was amended to enhance the nuclear transparency and secure the confidence of international community by means of establishing KINAC and the emergency plan of nuclear related organizations against accidental transportation of radioactive materials, and so on.

4.  CURRENT ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENTS ON NUCLEAR POWER

4.1.   Energy Policy

A. Long-term Nuclear Energy Policy Towards the year 2030

In order to realize the goal of the Atomic Energy Act, the Atomic Energy Commission decided upon the “Direction to Long-term Nuclear Energy Policy towards the Year 2030” in July 1994. The Direction emphasizes the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy under the spirit of pursuing a better life in harmony with nature. It describes 4 primary ideologies contributing to the economic growth, Environmental Protection, the development of science and technology, and ultimately to the improvement of human welfare as follows:

For the effective achievement of these 4 ideologies above, 5 basic goals of a long-term nuclear energy policy were established as follows:

• To establish the advanced administrative mechanism for securing the safety for peaceful use of nuclear energy and then to acquire a public trust
• to enhance the stability in energy supply as a major energy source of electric generation for the sustainable development
• to foster nuclear energy as a strategic export industry by securing international competitiveness through the advancement of nuclear technology, on the basis of active participation and initiatives of the civil sector, and
• to improve a human welfare, health and the quality of public lives by expanding the use of nuclear technology in agriculture, engineering, medicine, environment and industry
• To play a leading role in the advancement of science and technology by facilitating fundamental nuclear research and development, and developing human resources

For the effective achievement of 5 basic goals as considering 4 ideologies, 10 basic directions of a long-term nuclear energy policy were established as follows:

• to develop and utilize nuclear energy for peaceful purposes only, and to consistently uphold this policy
• to increase the public’s understanding of and support for nuclear energy while respecting the public’s right to know under the ideals of democracy and openness
• to further strengthen the efforts to improve nuclear safety, recognizing the fact that securing nuclear safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilization of nuclear energy
• to enhance the stability in energy supply by expanding the development and utilization of nuclear energy while trying to develop alternative energy sources available in the future
• to improve the quality of public lives by developing the technologies of radiation and radioisotopes, and promoting the industry up
• to enhance the international competitiveness of nuclear industries by establishing the technical cooperation system in collaboration with industries, universities and the research institutes, also making the industry system more efficiently
• to develop technologies and install the facilities for managing radioactive waste safely
• to consistently implement the development of nuclear technologies by achieving harmonization and balance on the aspect of being practice and acquiring the source technology
• to promote utilization and development activities, and develop human resources who can play a leading role in creative research and development
• to implement the nuclear energy policy on the basis of international understanding and cooperation in order to keep up with international harmonization

B. Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan

In order to achieve the objectives of the long-term nuclear energy policy, the government established a legal basis to formulate the “Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP)” every five years by the amendment to the Atomic Energy Act in January 1995. The CNEPP includes long-term nuclear policy objectives and basic directions, sector-by-sector objectives, budget and investment plan etc.

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and the heads of the concerned Ministries shall formulate sector-by-sector implementation plans for those areas under their jurisdiction every five years in accordance with the CNEPP and shall establish and implement annual action plans according to the sector-by-sector implementation plans.

The 1st CNEPP was formulated in June 1997. As of July 2001, the Korean government formulated the second CNEPP which includes an implementation plan for the five years from 2002 to 2006, and a direction to nuclear energy policy towards the year of 2015. The third CNEPP was formulated in January 2007. The implementation plan was scheduled for 5 years from 2007 to 2011.

For the effective achievement of the objectives above, 6 promotion areas of the CNEPP are as follows;

• Nuclear Energy for a Sustainable Development
• Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
• Fostering and Promotion of Nuclear Industry
• Utilization of Radiation and Radioisotopes
• Fundamental Nuclear Research and Development
• Nuclear Diplomacy and International Cooperation

In 2002, to facilitate Radiation Technology (RT) development, The Korea enacted the “Act on the Utilization of Radiation and Radioisotopes.” This act aimed to secure RT research fund and formulation of related industries and manpower development, and establishment of a Radiation and Radioisotopes R&D Center under KAERI by 2005. Thereafter, the act was amended again to establish the Korea Institute of Radiological & Medical Sciences (KIRAMS) for utilizing a radiation and fostering R&D efficiently in the field of medicine in December 2006.

4.2.   Privatization and Deregulation

The deregulation of the electricity market including privatization of the sector and an increasing awareness of environmental issues create new challenges and opportunities for the different generation technologies, including nuclear power.

Market liberalization is expected to affect not only price level of electricity power, but also competitiveness of various power generation technologies. Liberalized market implies the possibility of business failure and capital loss for incompetent power generation companies. Power generation companies including the KHNP in a liberalized market bear more business risk in return for the possibility of higher return, being in favor of less capital-intensive technologies. This will impose additional challenge for the future of nuclear power. Nuclear power has a relatively larger burden for risk management due to its characteristics such as higher capital cost, longer construction time, less flexible operation conditions, and higher political and technical risks related to safety, radioactive waste disposal and decommissioning issues.

However, the nuclear power plants have achieved the lowest generation cost among other power sources such as coal, LNG and oil etc. in Korea. And deregulation of the electricity market is expected to be positive for nuclear power. And it is expected to give more chances to enhance the operational performance of nuclear power plants. The potential costs related to reduction of greenhouse gases and other pollutant emissions by coal-fired power would strengthen the competitiveness of nuclear power.

4.3.   Role of the government in the nuclear R&D

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Minister of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) shall formulate the National Atomic Energy R&D Program according to the sector-by-sector implementation plan. The Atomic Energy R&D Program, so called the “National Mid- and Long-term Atomic Energy R&D Program” being implemented mainly by KAERI, KCCH, KINS and other fundamental research institutes.

In order to achieve the objectives of the long-term nuclear energy policy, the government established a legal basis to formulate the “Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP)” every five years.  The MEST has the responsibility for ensuring the nuclear safety and the development of the nuclear technologies.

According to the CNEPP, The Government established the R&D Program which covers 4 fields as follows: i) the development of the nuclear technologies, ii) the development of the radiation technologies, iii) the project to enhance a basis of the fundamental research, iv) the project to planning of the research, the policy and the assessment.

So, the role of the government in the nuclear R&D contributing to the economic and technological development and ultimately to the improvement of human welfare is as follows:

to develop and utilize nuclear energy for peaceful purposes only, and to consistently uphold this policy

• to further strengthen the efforts to improve nuclear safety, recognizing the fact that securing nuclear safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilization of nuclear energy
• to continue in expanding the development and utilization of nuclear energy in the future
• to improve the economy and to strengthen the international competitiveness of domestic industries through the advancement of nuclear technology

4.4.   Nuclear Energy and Climate Change

Korea has been implementing policies concerning energy, environmental protection and economic development through a variety of programs. In order to formulate and implement measures to deal more efficiently with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an Inter-Ministerial Committee on the UNFCCC comprised of related government agencies, research institutions and private companies, was established in April 1998 with the Prime Minister as the head of the committee. The committee had implemented three phases of Comprehensive National Action Plan to cope with the UNFCCC every three years from 1999 to 2007. Those phases had been implemented in the three fields: implementation of the UNFCCC, mitigation measures, and adaptation efforts. On the basis of the three phases of Comprehensive National Action Plan in December 2007, The Fourth Comprehensive National Action Plan was launched and would be implemented from 2008 to 2012. The Fourth Action Plan is set up to extend the planning period of 3 years to 5 years and to minimize the impact of climate change through mitigation, adaptation, R&D investment, infra-structure and international cooperation. In September 2008, the committee announced practice plans to implement The Fourth Action Plan that foster the green industry by developing the solar and wind power generation by 2012 to increase the supply ratio of renewable energies from 2.4 percent in 2006 to more than 11 percent in 2030.

Since more than 97% of Korea’s energy demand is met through imports, Korea’s energy policy has always placed top priority on energy conservation and energy efficiency even before the adoption of the UNFCCC in 1992. After the Rio Conference, such efforts have been further strengthened. In addition, the use of energy sources with low carbon intensity, such as nuclear and renewable energy, is continuing to be expanded and the policy of promoting energy-related technology development is being vigorously implemented. The Korean government will promote less energy-intensive economic activities and encourage a more environmentally friendly life style. Furthermore, the government will develop and commercialize innovative technology to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases, such as a next-generation nuclear reactor and a fuel cell. At the same time it will promote a “Clean Energy Community” to enhance energy efficiency in the residential and commercial sectors.

4.5.   Safety and waste management issues

A. Nuclear Safety

In September 1994, the MEST issued its “Nuclear Safety Policy Statement” containing 5 regulatory principles of nuclear safety: independence, openness, clarity, efficiency, and reliability. Also, it contained Risk Informed Regulation (RIR) which has introduced to current regulation system. RIR Objective is to use PRA insights and technology in a manner that complements the traditional deterministic approach and supports defense-in-depth.

The Nuclear Safety Policy Statement declared that securing safety is a prerequisite to the development and utilization of nuclear energy, and that all workers engaged in nuclear activities must adhere to the principle of “priority to safety.” It emphasizes the importance of developing the nuclear safety culture that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has referred to.

It also prescribes that the ultimate responsibility for nuclear safety rests with the operating organizations of nuclear installations, and is in no way diluted by the separate activities and responsibilities of designers, suppliers, constructors, or regulators. Finally, it prescribes that the Government shall fulfill its overall responsibility to protect the public and the environment from radiation hazards that might accompany the development and utilization of nuclear energy.

In 1994, the government designated the 10th of September as “Nuclear Safety Day.” Various events highlighting nuclear safety have been conducted, through government initiatives, for the purpose of having workers engaged in all nuclear-related organizations recognize the importance of nuclear safety and solidify their commitment to nuclear safety.

In 2000, the Atomic Energy Act was amended, to strengthen nuclear safety, as follows:

• Increase of NSC members to guarantee more participation of specialists in the policy decision making process
• Introduction of the Periodic Safety Review (PSR) to ensure that the safety of operating NPPs is maintained at current safety standards and practices
• Introduction of the Standard Design Certificate to streamline the licensing process for the construction of NPPs with same design
• Introduction of the ICRP Pub. 60 on a step-by-step basis with full implementation starting in January 2003

In 2001, the government issued the charter of nuclear safety to inspire the accountability and responsibility in securing nuclear safety.

In 2002, the regulatory organization established the safety performance indicator (SPI) system which is composed of 11 indicators for the periodic evaluation of safety level of all NPPs.

In 2003, the MEST designated the first Tuesday of every month as “Nuclear Safety Review Day.” During the day, various events are conducted such as Video-Conference with concerned organizations for enhancing nuclear safety culture, self assessment of nuclear facilities, safety meetings for senior manager’s safety instruction or delivery of top management’s safety message.

In 2006, the Nuclear Safety Commission resolved “the policy direction of nuclear safety regulation” which was to ensure the comprehensive safety of NPPs by means of Risk Informed Regulation. As a result, Risk-informed Regulation Implementation Plan (RIRIP) was established by the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS).

B. Waste Management

Basic Policy

The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) stated that the safe and effective radioactive waste management is the basis for the harmonized development of the nuclear industry. The basic policy that the AEC emphasizes is as follows;

•  Direct Control by the Government: Radioactive waste which needs long-term management shall be the responsibility and managed of the government

•  Top priority on safety: Radioactive waste shall be safely managed in due consideration of biological and environmental impact so as to protect the individuals, society and the environment from the harmful effects of radiation and to observe international norms on the safety of radioactive waste management

•   Minimization of production of the radioactive waste: Radioactive waste from the nuclear power plants and the radioisotope’s utilities shall be minimized

•   Principle of “Polluter Pays”: The expenses related to radioactive waste management shall be levied on the radioactive waste generator without imposing undue burden on future generations

•   Transparency of the Radioactive Waste Management: The radioactive waste management shall be managed transparently and openly to enhance public understanding and acceptance. And related projects including a site selection process shall be promoted based on both harmonization and development of local community

Project Plan

Construction and Operation of Facility for Disposal of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Wastes, which is called “Wolsong LILW Disposal Center Project.”

-       Disposal site : Gyoung-Ju (next to Wolsong NPP site)

-       Total capacity : 800,000 drums

-       Site area: 2,096,491 square metre.

-       Construction of stage 1

◦           Capacity : 100,000 drums

◦           Type : rock cavern (silo)

◦           Construction period : Jan. 2006 – Jun. 2010 (on the planning)

-       Construction of stage 2 will be determined later considering the results of site characteristic, technology development etc.

    -       Construction and Operation of the Interim Storage Facility for Spent Fuels

-       Storage of Spent Fuels at the nuclear site to 2016 by expanding the capacity of the temporary storage facility

The policy of the final management: to be determined later by considering the national policy and the technological development etc.

Research and Development

-      Treatment and disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes

-      Storage and transportation of spent fuels etc.

REFERENCES

                                                        Appendix 1

INTERNATIONAL (MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL) AGREEMENTS

BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

• Agreement for Co-operation between the ROK and the USA concerning Civil Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since 1956.
• Agreement, on Technical Co-operation between Korea and France; in effect since 1974.
• Agreement between Korea and France for the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, signed in April 1981.
• Agreement between Korea and Canada for Co-operation in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since 1976.
• Agreement between Korea and Australia concerning Co-operation in Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and the Transfer of Nuclear Materials, in effect since 1979.
• Notes between Korea and Japan for co-operation in the field of peaceful uses of nuclear energy, exchanged in May 1990.
• Protocol on co-operation in the field of peaceful uses of nuclear energy between the Ministry of Science and Technology of the ROK and the Ministry of Atomic Power and Industry of the USSR, in effect since December 1990.
• Agreement between the ROK and the UK for co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy, signed in November 1991.
• Protocol between the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of Korea and National Nuclear Safety Administration of the People's Republic of China on Cooperation in Nuclear Safety Matters in effect since April 1995.
• Arrangement between the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Republic of Korea, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission(U.S NRC), United States of America, for the Exchange of Technical Information and Cooperation in Regulatory and Safety Research Matters in effect since June 1995.
• Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam for Cooperation in Research into the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy in effect since January 1997.
• Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Argentine Republic for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy in effect since September 1997.
• Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of  Romania for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy in the fields of Industry, Research and Development in effect since September 2004.

                                                                 Appendix 2

Directory of The Main Organizations, Institutions and Companies Involved in Nuclear Power Related Activities