BANGLADESH

(updated on Oct. 2005)

1.  ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ELECTRICITY INFORMATION

The People's Republic of Bangladesh is located in South-east Asia between latitudes 20°34' and 26°34' north and longitude 88°01' and 92°31' east. The country is bordered by India on the east, west, and north and by the Bay of Bengal on the south. There is also a small strip of frontier with Myanmar. The land is a deltaic plain with a network of numerous rivers and canals. The delta landmass comprise mainly of three mighty rivers the-Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna, with a network of numerous rivers and canals. The total area of the country is about 144,000 sq km in which about 15% is forested. There are a few hilly areas in the south east and the north east of the country. Except the hilly regions in the north-east, some areas of high lands in the north and north-western part, the country consists of low, flat and fertile land. The alluvial soil is thus continuously being enriched during the rainy season by heavy silts deposited by rivers. The country has about 2734 km of railroad, 17554 km of paved road and roughly 5968 km of perennial and seasonal waterways.

Bangladesh is located in the sub-tropical region with a strong dominance of monsoon with a hot and rainy summer and a pronounced dry season in the cooler months. January is the coolest month of the year, with temperatures averaging near 26 deg C, and April the warmest month, with temperatures ranging between 33 deg and 36 deg C. The climate is one of the wettest in the world; most places receive more than 1,525 mm of rain a year, and areas near the hills receive 5,080 mm. Most rain falls during the monsoon (June - September) and little during the dry season (November - February).

The Padma-Jamuna-Meghna river system divides Bangladesh into two zones, east and west. All the reserves of natural gas, the country's only significant natural resource is located in the east zone. Coal is the only natural resource in the west zone.

Bangladesh is one of the densely populated countries of the world. According to the 2001 National Population Census, the total population of the country is about 123 million, with the growth rate 1.48. A significant decline of the growth rate has occurred during the past few decades. The urban population is about 20% of the total. Table 1 shows the data of population from 1970 to 2002. Here and the followings, the year stands for the Financial Year (July 31 to June 30). As of end of 1999, Bangladesh's average life expectancy at birth was 58.9 years, well above 51.7 years average for LDC's but well below the average of 64.5 years for all developing countries. The country's adult literacy rate stood at 60.41%, compared to 72.9% for all developing countries and 51.6% for LDC's. Infant mortality was estimated at 58 deaths per one thousand live births, compared to 61 for all developing countries.

1.1.1.  ECONOMIC OVERVIEW

Bangladesh is an agricultural country. More than 70% people are employed in the agriculture sector. This sector contributes to GDP is about 35%. Over the last several years, Bangladesh experienced bumper crops and strong growth in the agricultural sector. Recently, the country is attempting to diversify its economy away from agriculture to industry. A new industrial policy was announced in 1999 to creat environment for industrial expansion based on participation of private sector including foreign investors.

The GDP growth rate of Bangladesh was relatively faster during the 1990s (4.6%linear growth) in comparison to the 1980s (3.6% linear growth). Within the 1990s, the growth momentum was higher during the second half of the decade in comparison to the first half. The linear growth rate of GDP during the period of FY 1991-1995 was 3.95%, while during the next five year (FY 1996-2000), it grew at a faster rate of 4.79%. Following a decline of the GDP growth rate from 5.9% in FY 2000 to 4.4% in FY 2002, the national economy repositioned itself at a five percent plus growth trajectory during the subsequent two years (FY 2003 and FY 2004).

1.1.2.  ENERGY SITUATION

The main energy resources of the country are commercial energy resources and noncommercial resources (biomass). The commercial energy resources include indigenous natural gas, hydroelectricity, imported crude oil and other petroleum products and the noncommercial resources are mainly three types of noncommercial resources (biomass) such as trees (e.g. wood fuel), field crops (agricultural resources) and livestock (animal dung). Per capita consumption of energy and generation of electricity are about 220 KGOE/year and 130 kWh/year, respectively. More than 65% of the total final energy consumption is met by different type of biomass fuels. Access to electricity is one of the lowest in the world, coverage today stands at around 20% of the total population.

Natural gas is only significant source of commercial energy. According to Petrobangla, the responsible organization of the government for exploration and production of minerals estimates that the net recoverable deposit (proven) of natural gas is about 15.0 TCF. However, there is much uncertainty and debate on the natural gas reserve of Bangladesh. However, the US Geological Survey estimated that Bangladesh has an additional 32.1 TCF in undiscovered reserves. The demand of gas is increasing day by day in the country. The production of gas in the year 2002 was about 385 billion cubic feet (BCF). Natural gas accounts for about 65% of the total commercial energy consumption and for about 85% of the total electricity generation. The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) has been started to power vehicles in the capital city of Bangladesh to a limited extent and this utilization will be extended extensively to power vehicles across the country. The government has liberalized and opened the sector for private participation to increase the utilization of CNG commercially in all types of road and riverine transports replacing petrol and diesel.

The consumption of coal in the country is very small. The main utilization of coal is in the brick field. It accounts only 1.3% of the total final energy consumption. The estimated recoverable reserves is about about 724 million tons. Coal production in the country started with the opening of Barapukuria Coal Mine at Dinajpur District. Production target from this deposit is one million tons per annum commencing from 2004-2005. A major portion about 70% of this production will be utilized to operate a coal-based power plant of capacity 250 MW in the western zone and the reaming will be utilized for brick fields and other domestic uses. Bangladesh has no significant oil reserve. A small oil reserve of 56.9 million barrels (proven) was discovered. It produces 7000 barrels per day of which 6000 bbl/d is crude oil. Bangladesh solely depends on import crude and refined petroleum fuels. In the year 2002, the country imported 83,000 bbl/d. Eastern Refinery Ltd. Is only the petroleum refinery in Bangladesh which annual production capacity is 1.5 million tonnes.

The terrain of the country being flat, there is no realistic prospect for building additional hydro units.

The limited indigenous energy resources of the country are insufficient to meet the national demand targets, which have been affecting the national development efforts over the last decades. The country needs a high growth of energy supply, especially electricity for its socioeconomic development.

1.2.  ENERGY POLICY

In recognition of the importance of energy in socio-economic development, the government has given continuing attention to the overall development of the energy sector. The government formulated and adopted the National Energy Policy (NEP) of the country through a gazette notification in January, 1996 to ensure proper exploration, production, distribution and rational use of energy sources to meet the growing energy demand of different zones, consuming sectors and consumers groups on a sustainable basis. The main objectives of the NEP are as follow:

1. To provide energy for sustainable economic growth so that the economic development activities of different sectors of economy are not constrained by shortage of energy.
2. To meet the energy needs of different zones of the country and socio-economic groups.
3. To ensure sustainable operation of the energy utilities.
4. To ensure rational use of total energy sources.
5. To ensure environmentally sound and sustainable energy development programmes causing minimum pollution to the environment.
6. To ensure public and private sector participation in the development and management of the energy sector.

The policy document provides specific policy related to issues like development of the energy sector, augmentation of resources, pricing, technological options, fuel and technology mix, conservation, environment, investment, area based planning, bio-mass development rural energy research and development, human resource development, institutional issues and legal issues. The needs and priorities of involving the private sector in development of energy have also been emphasized in the policy. A separate Petroleum Policy was also adopted at that time, which defines various issues related to exploration, exploitation, use and pricing of hydrocarbons. The National Energy Policy is now being reviewed. The need for early implementation of the Nuclear Power Project is identified in the NEP.

1.3.  THE ELECTRICITY SYSTEM

1.3.1.  POLICY AND DECISION MAKING PROCESS

The utilities of electric power sector are divided into three major groups according to their services that they provide and these are generation, transmission and distribution. Previously, Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) under the Ministry of Energy And Mineral Resources (MOEMR) was responsible for all activities related to planning, generation, transmission, distribution and marketing of electricity. The MOEMR has overall responsibility for the country's energy sector, with policy formulation and investment decisions under its control.

The first shift in policy had taken place through the formation of the Rural Electricity Board (REB) in 1977, which was given the mandate to bring the rural areas of the country under electricity supply through the establishment of Consumers' societies. The second milestone was the formation of the Dhaka Electricity Supply the mid-nineties.

The involvement of the independent power producers in electricity generation is gradually replacing the concept of public sector monopoly in the development on the energy sector of the country and within the MOEMR, the "Power Cell" acts as a single point of contact to facilitate the electricity reform and restructuring process, such as the development of Independent Power Producers (IPPs). For system loss reduction in power sector, the government envisages special measures in the transmission and distribution network and retrofitting of plants with move on improved devices for technical losses and good management through administrative measures. In the meanwhile, a separate corporation, namely the Power Grid Company of Bangladesh Limited was formed to gradually take the responsibility of the electricity transmission network. In spite of several deficiencies and constraints on part of the BPDB (such as dual responsibility of regulation and promotion, administrative tariff in place of economic operation, lack of financing and above all unacceptable system losses) it has been possible to maintain a moderate growth at an annual average rate of 8.5% and the energy generation at an average annual rate of 10.7% over the last three decades.

1.3.1.1.  PROJECTED DEMAND FOR ELECTRICITY

Considering the growth of the individual end-user sectors the projection of demand for energy should ideally be made. A projection made on this basis can help ensuring proper linkages between the micro and macro projections and hence reflect the demand driven needs for energy on a long-term perspective. On the other hand, a large number of data on individual end-use sectors are required for this purpose. Unfortunately, data of such extent with the desired level of accuracy is not available. Therefore, in the National Energy Policy the estimation of future demands for energy and electricity (up to the year 2020) was made by considering the energy- coefficient, i.e. the ratio of the energy growth rate and the growth rate of the economy. Projections on electricity demand have been made in the National Energy Policy in two scenarios. The low scenario is shown in Table 1.3.1.1(a), while the reference scenario is given in Table 1.3.1.1.(b). It is interesting to note that, even according to the Reference Scenario, the per capita generation of electricity in the year 2015 will reach a level which is lower than the present consumption in the neighbouring countries like India and Pakistan.

Table 1.3.1.1 (a) Projected Demand for Electricity (Low Economic Growth Scenario)

Table 1.3.1.1 (b) Projected Demand for Electricity (Reference Economic Growth Scenario)

1.3.1.2.  ELECTRICITY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Per capita generation of electricity in Bangladesh is now about 140 kWh. In view of the prevailing low consumption base in Bangladesh, a high growth rate in energy and electricity is indispensable for facilitating smooth transition from subsistence level of economy to the development threshold. The average annual growth in peak demand of the national grid over the last three decades was about 8.5%. It is believed that the growth is still suppressed by shortage of supply. Desired growth in generation is hampered, in addition to financial constraints, by inadequacy in supply of primary energy resources. The strategy adopted during the energy crisis was to reduce dependence on imported oil through its replacement by indigenous fuel. Thus, almost all plants built after the energy crises were based on natural gas as fuel. Preference for this fuel is further motivated by its comparatively low tariff for power generation. Its continuation, however has adversely influenced evolution of a judicious energy-mix for the country in the following ways:

1. Allocation of gas to other value added end-use sectors was reduced;
2. Technologies having lower efficiency often became economic, thereby reducing overall efficiency of the system;
3. Location of power plants often failed to take into consideration the need for equitable distribution of energy; and
4. Growth of the power sector was forced to be linked with the programmes of development of a particular fuel type.

1.3.1.3.  ROLE OF INDIGENOUS FUEL IN POWER GENERATION

The average annual growth in peak demand of the national grid over the last three decades was about 8.5%. Desired growth in generation is hampered, in addition to financial constraints, by inadequacy in supply of primary energy resources. Presently exploited indigenous primary energy resources of Bangladesh for power generation include natural gas and hydro electricity. The lone viable hydro electricity site is being exploited with an annual generation in the range from 800 to 1000 GWh per year. Natural gas now accounts for about 90% of the total generation. A coal deposit is being developed, which will attain an annual output of 1 million ton at its peak. The allocation of natural gas for different end-use sectors, including power production has been indicated in the National Energy policy. The role of indigenous fuel in power generation is given in Table 1.3.1.3. This shows that after the year 2000, the gap between demand for electricity and the generation with indigenous fuels will rise sharply.

Table 1.3.1.3: Generation of Electricity with indigenous fuels (in GWh)

1.3.1.4.  OPTIONS OF IMPORTED FUELS FOR POWER GENERATION

In the National Energy Policy, the options of imported fuel for power generation are limited to oil, coal and nuclear.

1.3.2.  ELECTRIC POWER SECTOR

The strategy adopted during the energy crisis was to reduce dependence on imported oil through its replacement by indigenous fuel. Thus, almost all plants built after the energy crisis was based on natural gas as fuel. Preference for this fuel is further motivated by its comparatively low price for power generation. Presently, indigenous energy sources (e.g. natural gas, hydro) are used for the generation of electricity in the East Zone. The East Zone contains nearly all of the country's electric generating capacity while imported petroleum fuels (e.g. Furnace Oil (FO), Light Diesel Oil (LDO), Superior Kerosene Oil (SKO), High Speed Diesel (HSD)) are used to generate electricity in some areas of the West Zone. As a result, the energy demand is strongly suppressed in the West Zone which only accounting 22% in present days. In order to minimize the effect of fuel cost on power generation, electricity generated in the East Zone is transferred to the West Zone via East West Electrical Inter-Connector established in 1982. The transfer capacity of the Inter-Connector has almost reached its limit (450 MW). Gas is already available at Baghabari - Serajganj in the West Zone through Jamuna Bridge and there is a plan to extend gas network all over the West Zone. It is logical and economical to install gas-based power plants in the West Zone.

1.3.2.1.  GENERATION

The responsible authorities for generation of electricity are: Bangladesh Power Development Board, Rural Power Company and Independent Power Producers (IPPs). The total installed capacity of the power plants was about 4680 MW including 1260 MW of the IPPs. In the fiscal year of 2002-2003 the generating capacity was 4230 MW. The total installed capacity including IPP consists of the following types of plants (according to FY 2002-2003): Hydro: 230 MW (4.91%); Steam Turbine: 2228 MW (47.61%); Gas Turbine: 994 MW (19.60%); Combined Cycle: 990 MW (5%); Diesel: 238 MW (6.91%). The peak generation had increased to 3428 MW compared to previous year's 3218 MW. The total net generation in that year was about 18422.07 GWh, which was 5.22% more than that of the previous year. The share of the IPPs in total net generation was about 6298.81 GWh, which was increased about 67% than that of the previous year. Total electricity generation by types of fuels was as follows: hydro (4.52%), natural gas (89.39%), petroleum fuels (5.14%) and diesel (0.95%). Among the total generation 87% was in the East zone. Low cost electricity generated in the east zone is transferred to the west through the 230 kV East-West Inter-connector. The energy transferred in FY 2002-2003 was 2170.40 GWh, which was a decrease of 3.5% over the previous year.

1.3.2.2.  TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB), Dhaka Electric Supply Authority (DESA), Rural Electrification Board (REB), Power Grid Company of Bangladesh (PGCB) are responsible for transmission and distribution. The total length of 230 kV and 132 kV transmission lines were 682.5 route km (1365 circuit km) and 2635 route km (4611 circuit km), respectively. The total length of distribution lines comprising 33 kV, 11 kV and 11/.4 kV lines stood at 43059 km at the end of 2002-2003 which was 1404 km higher than the previous year. During the last twenty-five years the overall transmission and distribution losses that includes the technical and non-technical loses varied between 27.2% and 40.2% of the net generation. A high proportion of losses at T&D level include non-technical losses (e.g. theft, pilferage etc.). In the year 2001, the transmission and distribution (T&D) loss in the country was 30.97% of the net generation. In the FY 2002-2003, in BPDB system the T & D loss was about 11.35%, which was 12.62% in the previous year.

TABLE 5. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND INSTALLED CAPACITY

1.3.2.3.  CONSUMPTION

The total number of consumers at the end of 2002-2003 was 1690451 against 1644755 at the end of 2001-2002. This was about 2.78% increase over the year 2001-2002. The total consumption of electricity was about 16331.56 MkWh in 2002-2003, which was 7% higher than the previous year. The consumption patterns in different end-user categories were as follows: DESA (50.95%), REB (19.43%), domestic (12.21%), industrial and commercial (15.77%), agriculture (0.46%) and others (1.18%).

TABLE 6. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

1.3.2.4.  OPERATING EXPENSES

The total sale of electricity has been increased by 13.59% over the previous year. The total operating income (sale of electricity and other operating income) is about 7650 million USD. The operating expenses (fuel cost, cost of electricity purchases from IPPs, generating expenses, transmission and distributions expenses and others) is about 6682 million USD. The total operating expenses has increased by 8.42% than the previous year. The operating profit is about 968 million USD.

2.  NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1.  HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT NUCLEAR POWER ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Peaceful uses of Nuclear Technology were initiated in Bangladesh in early 1960's under the framework of the then Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). After independence, Bangladesh became a Member State of the Agency in 1972. Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1973 by the Presidential Order No. 15 with the goal of utilization of Nuclear Science & Technology for national development.. Nuclear establishment in the country however existed and concerned activities were carried on even before its independence from Pakistan. The Commission was entrusted with the following charter of duties: "Promotion of the peaceful uses of atomic energy in Bangladesh, the discharge of International obligations connected therewith, the undertaking of research, the execution of development projects involving nuclear power stations and matters incidental thereto." Since then, three decades have elapsed and the Commission pursued various research and development projects, established a number of research and service providing centres with necessary laboratory facilities and equipment, trained working scientists and developed supporting facilities that can be used to meet the fast changing trends of scientific and technological pursuits of the modern world.

BAEC's overall R&D programs are formulated in two distinct trains, namely (a) problems addressing the needs of national development and (b) basic R&D. Of these, the first group of projects is now being given higher priority. This will also be evident from the fact that vertical linkage of BAEC is provided through the Ministry and the Planning Commission, which ensures that national goals and development targets are featured in its programs and projects.

Over the years, the Agency has been a partner-in-development in most of the leading BAEC institutes. This has meant a continuing relationship with various institutes at Savar and at AECD. Broadly speaking, the program at Savar covers research reactor commissioning and its utilization for isotope production, 1.85 PBq Co-60 irradiator, neutron activation analysis, and neutron radiography. Nuclear analytical facilities, and laboratories for repair and maintenance of nuclear instruments, have been established both at Savar and at AEC, Dhaka. Utilization of Van de Graaff accelerator at AECD was also supported by the Agency. NDT program at AECD and isotope hydrology at Savar, and food preservation, pest control, radiation sterilization of pharmaceuticals, tissue banking and agrochemical residue analysis at the Institute of Food and Radiation Biology, have also been well supported.

The Law on Nuclear Safety and Radiation Control was enacted in 1993. Considering that BAEC is the only national institution that has expertise and trained human resources needed for the enforcement of the law, it was also given nuclear regulatory responsibility. In future, a separate organization will be set up in order to separate promotional responsibilities from the regulatory ones. When this is implemented, it will be possible to attain the required transparency in nuclear safety and radiation control especially in all stages for licensing and inspection of nuclear facilities and radiation sources.

In addition to making excellent use of opportunities under the country TC program, Bangladesh has been an active partner in the Regional Cooperation Agreement (RCA) program. According to a recent review of the Technology Transfer through RCA program, the country participated in different areas of RCA activities. Through the devotion, dedication and hard work of scientists, engineers and technicians, sustained support from the Government, and a judicious combination of IAEA country projects with the RCA program the country has attained a high level of technology transfer. This is a good achievement and reflects the growing maturity of Bangladesh's nuclear program.

2.2.  NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS: STATUS AND OPERATIONS

2.2.1.  HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT IN BANGLADESH

The proposal for building a nuclear power plant in the western zone of the country was first mooted in 1961. Since then a number of feasibility reports had been prepared which established that the plant was technically and economically feasible. The Rooppur site was selected in 1963 and 292 acres (118.3 hectare) of land (105.3 hectare for plant and 13 hectare for residential purposes) was acquired for the project. Physical infrastructures like residential quarters, site office, rest house, internal road, electric sub-station, pump house etc. were established in the project area. The then Pakistan government gave formal approval for 70 MW, 140 MW and 200 MW Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) in 1963, 1966 and 1969, respectively. Following liberation the ECNEC had approved the pp for a 125 MW nuclear power plant in 1980. A number of suppliers had submitted proposals for the project both before and after liberation. However, the project could not be implemented due to several problems with financing as the main obstacle.

Considering the changed circumstances in national and international level the government of Bangladesh expressed its firm commitment to implement the Rooppur nuclear power project (RNPP). It may be mentioned that the inordinate delay in project implementation has brought about a number of changes in the planning process. For example since grid size is growing, it will eventually grow to a size where accommodation of a larger plant of 600 mw with advantage of economy of scale would be required. The growth of the grid to such a size incidentally matches the time needed for implementation of such a plant. Such changes would necessitate updating data, information and some of the past studies.

2.2.2.  DECISION MAKING PROCESS

Nuclear power projects are very complicated and any decision on it, unless taken at an appropriate level of the government, might be rendered ineffective. Continuity of decision over a long time is also an important requirement. In the case of Bangladesh, a Cabinet Committee, chaired by the Head of the Government, has the responsibility to take decision on the project. This Committee includes Ministers and Permanent Secretaries of all relevant Ministries as well as the government agencies related to the project, the Planning Commission of the government and the energy sector in general. It takes all policy decisions based on the information and analyses made available to it. This has also facilitated establishing proper linkages between the macro and micro level planning. A Sub-Committee, headed by the Principal Secretary is also formed to monitor implementation of the decision taken by the Cabinet Committee. The Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission has been given the responsibility for implementation of the policy decisions.

It is equally important for a developing country to convince relevant foreign governments on the priority of the project, because these are the sources for technology and finance. This may be accomplished through the contacts made at appropriate levels of the foreign government.

2.2.3.  PRESENT STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The need of early implementation of the Nuclear Power Project at Rooppur in the Western Zone of the country identified in the NEP and also in the last fifth five year plan and also proposed in the 6th five year plan. A supporting project for implementation of the Rooppur Nuclear Power Project was approved by the Government in 1999 to carry out the necessary pre-implementation works identified for the successful implementation of the project. A number of initial activities, such as updating the Site Report and preparation of Site Safety Report of 600 MW(e), promulgation of a Nuclear Power Action Plan, Human Resource Development, preparation of Bid Document, etc. have been initiated to facilitate the implementation of the project. The Government has adopted the National Nuclear Power Action Plan (2001).

2.2.3.1.  BANGLADESH NUCLEAR POWER ACTION PLAN (BANPAP)

A blanket administrative provision is essential to ensure efficient implementation of a government decision on the national nuclear power programme. Its overwhelming role is evident from the wide range of national as well as international agencies, whose concerted participation is essential for the success in realizing the decision effectively. Such a provision is best served through a National Nuclear Action Plan, adopted at the appropriate level of the government. The main purpose of this document is to identify:

1. Various activities needed for implementation of the nuclear power programme;
2. The agencies responsible for each of these activities;
3. Enabling measures like funding, for conducting the activities.

The government of Bangladesh adopted the National Nuclear Action Plan (BNPAP) for meeting the above-mentioned purposes for early implementation of the nuclear power project in the country in 2000.

The Table of Contents the BANPAP are as follows:

2.2.3.2.  SITE SAFETY REPORT OF THE PROPOSED 600 MW(E) ROOPPUR NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT

The contents of the Site Safety Report of the proposed 600 MW(e) Rooppur Nuclear Power Project are as follows:

2.2.3.2.  FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING FOR NUCLEAR POWER

Several factors may be identified that deserve attention in planning for nuclear power. They include the following:

• Convincing the decision makers, both internal and external;
• Establishing a human resource development programme;
• Developing legal instruments;
• Establishing an institutional framework;
• Providing public information and obtaining public acceptance;
• Meeting the conditions of the international non-proliferation regime.

With respect to the need for nuclear power as a component of the overall energy mix, it should be born in mind that building one single unit of a nuclear power plant is often not profitable in view of the large fore-cost involved in it. Therefore, the intending developing country should aim at a nuclear power programme and not a mere nuclear power project. A programme would fetch many tangible, intangible and spin-off benefits from a nuclear power programme, thereby making contributions to not only the energy sector but also the overall economic activity.

The relative importance and priority of the above broad issues are, of course, dependent on the socio-economic and political system of the particular country. The salient features of experience of Bangladesh in planning for nuclear power over an extended period are enumerated in the following paragraphs.

2.2.3.3.  LINKAGE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANNING WITH THE MACRO LEVEL PLANNING

In Bangladesh, the medium to long-term and short-term (annual) macro planning are conducted under term plans (Five Year Plan) and Annual Development Programmes, respectively. The Term Plan is divided into various sectoral plans. Development targets of electricity generation, transmission and distribution over a plan period are set under the energy sector. Thus, any decision on nuclear power programme is taken by considering the overall programme for the sector. Various studies are conducted to assess energy demand during the plan period and on the supply side the technologies for generation are identified by considering the relevant factors such as economics, fuel option, environmental dimension, project gestation period, availability of finance, etc. The National Energy Policy, with a perspective period of 25 years is also consulted for the purpose. In the case of Bangladesh, the need for introducing nuclear power is identified in all these macro-level plans and policy documents. The existing executive framework for the project, which is discussed in a later paragraph, has been proved useful in establishing the linkage with the macro level planning.

It is also equally important to assess the economic aspects of nuclear power as a component of a least cost generation plan. The environmental impact of various options should also be assessed properly as one of the tools for decision-making.

In many developing countries, the new trend is to deregulate the electricity sector. Private entrepreneurs are attracted to invest in the entire range of activities, including generation. Of late, entrepreneurs have established generating plants in Bangladesh under Power Purchase Agreements. In the transitional phase, extreme care has to be taken in choosing the technology and fuel options for evolving the optimum generation plan. In particular, the conditions of power purchase agreement for the private sector generation may upset overall optimisation of the system. Other factors deserving attention include the administered price of indigenous fuels and energy tariff. Centralized planning for generation may thus need some structural changes and review of strategies by considering the above changes.

2.2.3.4.  THE NEED FOR AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO PLANNING

The macro-micro linkage is an important pre-requisite for the integrated approach to nuclear power project planning. However, the other important facet is the need for integration among various elements of micro planning of nuclear power programme. The two broad strings of activities that have to be addressed with equal earnestness and seriousness right from the inception of a nuclear power programme are:

(a)  Technical, economic and financial management of the nuclear power programme; and
(b)  Safety and regulatory aspects.

Since the above two categories of functions are to be ultimately conducted independent of each other, the planning for nuclear power, including capacity building and human resource development activities as well as the necessary legal frameworks for each of these, need to be addressed properly. Issues like management of radioactive waste including a policy on ultimate disposal of high level wastes also require attention at the early stage. Other issues, like capacity building in quality management, identification of codes, guides and standards, project management, etc., also deserve due consideration. In particular, the human resource development programme should be developed in such a way that the core manpower acquires at least working knowledge in the above-mentioned key areas of the nuclear power programme.

2.4.  SUPPLY OF NPPS

At present time, there is no nuclear power plant in Bangladesh.

2.5.  FUEL CYCLE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Since Bangladesh is not operating any NPP, program on waste management is focused to that related to research reactor and industrial uses of radiation/nuclear sources. There are a facility for isotope production and a facility for waste management at AERE, Savar. However, presently, there is no program on nuclear fuel cycle.

2.6.  INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND INITIATIVES

2.6.1.  MEMBERSHIPS IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Bangladesh became a Member State of the Agency in 1972.

2.6.2.  INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

Bangladesh is a party to a whole range of commitments to the international nuclear non-proliferation and verification regime, such as NPT, Bilateral Safeguard Agreement with the IAEA, the Protocol Additional to Safeguards Agreement, and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). Please see Appendix 1.

2.6.3.  PAST TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION WITH IAEA

BAEC operates under the Ministry of Science and Information & Communication Technology (MOSICT), and is thus an integral part of the scientific network of the country. BAEC has been the national focal point for the IAEA including its Technical Cooperation (TC) program and the Technical cooperation program with the Agency has, so far, covered almost the entire range of BAEC activities, especially those, which have direct relevance to the national development agenda. The total assistance provided during the last 10 years (1991-2000) amounted to approximately US$ 6.885 million. More than half of this assistance (53.87%) was devoted to the human resources development areas, namely Experts, Fellowships, Training Courses, and Scientific Visits. The reminder was provided in the form of equipment and subcontracts. Area-of-activity wise, 88% of the assistance was provided in five areas, namely, agriculture (24.2%), application of isotopes and radiation in medicine (21.2%), nuclear engineering and technology (20.3%), nuclear safety (13.1%), and industry and hydrology.

2.6.4.  ONGOING TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION WITH IAEA

2.7.  HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

The availability of trained professionals is a key parameter to the planning activities. Regional as well as inter-regional training courses on different aspects of nuclear power, including those related to the planning cycle, are organized by the IAEA as well as under the RCA. Since the positions available for these short-term training courses are limited, preference is usually given to the countries that have a known commitment to nuclear power.

If a technical Co-operation Projects exists, then additional manpower may be trained under it. Such training courses may take the form of classroom as well as on the job training.

It is also useful to organize national training courses/workshops focused on the pre-implementation phase. IAEA can provide valuable support like:

(a) Determining the format of the course;
(b) Determining the course contents; and
(c) Providing international experts for various topics.

Bangladesh organized such a National Training workshop in 1999 with a duration of 10 weeks, which was attended by 32 local fresh to mid-level professionals. The IAEA had provided 22 international experts for the Workshop, which consisted of 220 hours of lectures, group discussions, presentations by the participants and appraisal tests. The success of the Training Workshop was manifested by the fact that even the fresh professionals attending it have acquired knowledge and confidence that are enabling them to make significant contributions towards various activities in the pre-implementation phase, including updating of the Site Report and preparation of the Request For Proposal document.

3.  NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1.  SAFETY AUTHORITY AND LICENSING PROCESS

BAEC is responsible to regulate use of atomic energy, radiological practices and relevant activities under the provision of the Nuclear Safety and Radiation Control (NSRC) Act, (No. 21 of 1973) and the NSRC Regulations 1997.

3.2.  LEGAL INSTRUMENTS

Various legal instruments are some of the pre-requisites for success in implementing a nuclear power programme in a developing country. They are to be formulated in conformity with the existing laws of the country. These instruments may include, among others, provisions for enforcing nuclear safety and radiation control, nuclear liability, establishing independent organizations for safety and promotional activities, deregulation and involvement of the private sector in activities related to nuclear power, etc. Additional legal provisions may be required if the country wishes to attract private entrepreneurs to invest in the nuclear power programme. This is necessitated by the fact that in most countries, at least in the initial phase of a nuclear power programme, all activities are vested in the public sector.

3.3.  INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

In many countries having an active nuclear power programme, the activities were initiated within the framework of the national agency responsible for nuclear research and development programmes. This strategy may be effective because of the multi-disciplinary nature of such an institution and also cost-effectiveness. As the programme grows, such an institutional arrangement may ultimately become less effective, especially in the areas related to commercial operation and safety. Thus, it becomes essential to establish separate institutions for Safety and Regulatory matters and for construction and operation of nuclear power plants. In Bangladesh, a separate Division of the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) with 15 professionals (3 senior level, 2 mid-level and 10 fresh graduates with training on nuclear technology) and other supporting staff conduct all the activities of the pre-implementation phase. A separate Division of BAEC is responsible for enforcement of the provisions of the law and regulations on Nuclear Safety and Radiation Control. The Government plans to establish a separate institution for future nuclear power plants in order to ensure better economic, financial and technological management. This new institution is envisaged to have adequate provisions for maintaining vertical linkage between the plant management and the decision makers of the government.

3.4.  TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND NATIONAL PARTICIPATION

It is important to decide at a very early stage the mode and extent of technology transfer that the country aims at. It is no doubt that the whole planning exercise will depend on this decision, especially as this would influence the size and nature of the HRD programme. The same is also true for the desired extent of national participation in project implementation. A very careful and intensive appraisal of national infrastructure and industrial experience is required in determining the nature and extent of national participation.

3.5.  INFORMATION TO THE PUBLIC

Public information and public acceptance may be considered as one of the key determinants for success of a nuclear power programme. Dialogues with the public, the people's representatives at various levels and the decision makers are considered to be important determinants in ensuring transparency and public acceptance. In the case of Bangladesh, the acceptance of nuclear power is in general favourable, especially in and around the site. This is evident from the fact that, in spite of the inordinate delay and land being a precious commodity for the villagers, it has been possible to retain the land for the project for about four decades. The general perception is that construction of a nuclear power plant would create job opportunities and have other spin-off benefits for the residents. Moreover, way back in the 1960's the families affected by eviction were offered attractive compensation packages. Nevertheless, it is apprehended that opposition groups may be encountered as soon as construction work starts. An effective public acceptance programme has to be designed and implemented in order to enhance public acceptance.

3.6.  INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES OF THE REGULATORY BODY

Up to the present time, the contact with international organization is only with the IAEA. Bangladesh is party to the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and Convention on Assistance in the Case of Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency.

The contact is based upon formal exchange information, and the contacts are made at Governmental level.

The participation of the Regulatory Body in the activities of international organizations are in the form of seminars, in training courses and in giving the opportunity to the IAEA's trainees to come to the Regulatory Body.

REFERENCES

Appendix 1

INTERNATIONAL, MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAl AGREEMENTS

BILETERAL COOPERATION AGREEMENT

Bangladesh has bilateral agreements on nuclear cooperation the Government of USA and France. Recently, bangladesh made bilateral Cooperation Agreement with China on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy.