Index Introduction Structure Countryprofiles Topics Links Comments
Hungary is a landlocked central European country. Its history goes back to more than a thousand year in Europe. Once part of the Ottoman and Hapsburg empires, it became a partner in the Austro-Hungarian empire in the mid-19th century. After a period of turmoil following World War I, an independent kingdom of Hungary was established. The redrawing of European borders that took place after World War I left about five million ethnic Hungarians living in neighbouring countries. Their status remains a sensitive issue. Following World War II, the country found itself under communist rule. An uprising against Soviet domination in 1956 was crushed by Red Army forces but Hungary did later become the first Eastern European country to gain some economic freedom. It embraced aspects of the free market while still under communist rule and in 1968 the authorities allowed limited decentralisation of the economy. Hungary played an important part in accelerating the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe when in 1989 it opened its border with Austria, allowing thousands of East Germans to escape to the West. Just a few months later the Berlin Wall fell. Hungary's post-communist economic transition was achieved relatively smoothly. Within four years of the collapse of communism nearly half of the country's economic enterprises had been transferred to the private sector, and by 1998 Hungary was attracting nearly half of all foreign direct investment in its region. Hungary joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. It became a member of NATO on 12 March 1999. In 2008 the high level of both private and state borrowing left the country particularly vulnerable to the credit crunch and in October 2008 the government was forced to appeal to international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank for massive loans in a bid to stave off economic collapse.
Politics of Hungary takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Hungary is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The party system is dominated by the Hungarian Socialist Party and the conservative Hungarian Civic Union or FIDESZ. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Republic of Hungary is an independent, democratic and constitutional state. Since the constitutional amendment of 23 October, 1989, Hungary is a parliamentary republic. Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral National Assembly that consists of 386 members. Members of the National Assembly are elected for four years. The last election was in May 2006, the next one will be in April 2010.
Hungary has borders with Austria, the Slovak republic, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. It is strategically located astride main land routes between Western Europe and the Balkan peninsula as well as between Ukraine and the Mediterranean basin. Most of Hungary is a fertile, tolling plain lying east of the Danube River and drained by the Danube and Tisza rivers. In the extreme Northwest is the Little Hungarian Plain. South of that area is Lake Balaton (648 km2), the largest in central Europe. Hungary covers an area of 93,032 square kilometres.
Hungary has a continental climate with Mediterranean and Atlantic influences with humid winters and warm summers. The average temperature in January is 2 °C (28 °F) and in July 23 °C (73 °F).
TABLE 1: POPULATION INFORMATION
| 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2001 | 2005 | 2010 | |
| Population (Millions) | 10.3 | 10.7 | 10.4 | 10.2 | 10.1 | 10.0 |
| Population Density (Inhabitants/km2) | 111.0 | 115.1 | 111.5 | 109.6 | 108.5 | 107.6 |
| Urban Population as % of Total | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | - |
| Area (1000 km2) | 93.0 | |||||
| *Latest Available Data | ||||||
Source: Hungarian Statistical Office
According to preliminary data in 2009, 96,450 children were born, 2.7 percent less than in the previous year. The number of deceases was 130,350, by 0.2 per cent higher than in 2008. The natural decrease was by 3,022 persons higher than one year before, it amounted to 33,900 persons. Taking into account the international migration, the population size of the country was estimated to be 10,013 thousand at the end of the period.
TABLE 2: GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
| 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | |
| GDP (Millions of Current US$) | 332 548.0 | 22 165.0 | 33 059.0 | 47 870.0 | 110 150.0 | 138 602.0 |
| GDP (Millions of Constant 2000 US$) | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| GDP Per Capita (PPP* US$/Capita) | - | - | - | 12 250.0 | 16 955.0 | 18 799.0 |
| GDP Per Capita (Current US$/Capita) | 32 171.0 | 2 070.0 | 3 187.0 | 4 688.0 | 10 920.0 | 13 783.0 |
| * PPP: Purchasing Power Parity | ||||||
| ** Latest Available Data | ||||||
Source: Hungarian Statistical Office
In international terms, Hungary has a relatively limited economic potential with a sensitive foreign economy. Based on its GDP, Hungary is ranked as a relatively small unit in the world economy. The Hungarian economy has undergone a dramatic transformation since 1995 and until 2005 the gross domestic product per employed person showed continuous improvement. Hungary has become the member of the OECD in 1996 and the European Union in 2004 and it greatly influenced its economical development. Simultaneously with somewhat moderating Western European boom, the Hungarian economy was characterised by minimally decelerating growth that still exceeded 4% in 2005. From 2006 the rate of the growth of GDP started to decrease and in 2007 it was only 1.3%. The global economic crisis hit Hungary in 2008. The mitigation of the external slump is also perceivable in Hungary`s economic performance. However, the real economic impacts of the crisis seem to be longer, which is largely due to the fact that the economic crisis hit Hungary in the period of internal balance improvement, and the signs of the slowdown of the slump in the Hungarian economy, largely depending on international booms, occur with some delay. Parallel with the global economic recession the performance of the Hungarian economy fell, too. On an annual basis, the gross domestic product (GDP) decreased continuously from the fourth quarter of 2008 and was 7.1% lower in Q1–Q3 of 2009 than one year earlier. In 2009 as a whole the performance of the economy dropped by 6.3% after an expansion of 0.6% in the previous year. The actual final consumption of households was 7% less than one year before. According to detailed branch statistics the volume of industrial production was 17.7% lower in 2009. The unemployment rate went up from 7.9% to 10.1% over a year. After the relatively fast rates of inflation in the previous two years consumer prices rose by 4.2% on average in 2009.
TABLE 3: ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
| Fossil Fuels | Nuclear | Renewables | ||||
| Solid | Liquid | Gas | Uranium | Hydro | Other Renewable | |
| Total Amount in Exajoules [EJ] | 85.86 | 0.74 | 1.98 | 2.20 | 0.02 | 60.11 |
| *Solid, Liquid: Million Tons |
| Gas: m3 |
| Uranium: Metric Tons |
| Hydro, Renewable: TW |
* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m3; Uranium: Metric tons; Hydro, Renewable: TW
Hungary has estimated coal reserves of more than 3,3 billion tonnes. The bulk of this is lignite, with 2,9 billion tonnes, followed by 0,2 billion tonnes of brown coal and 0,2 billion tonnes of hard coal. The coal found in Hungary has comparatively low calorific value with high ash and sulphur content. Only lignite deposits in the north-east region of Hungary represent profitable and prospective possibility of mining. An important element of coal mining is the rigorous application of environmental protection requirements. Although the major share is used for power generation, a significant amount of coal was used for heating and cooking in households and communal facilities until the early 1990s: since that it has rapidly declined. Domestic production has declined for the last two decades. Hungary produced 2,2 Mtoe of coal in 2004, and imported 1,15 Mtoe. Net imports amount to over 35% of total supply and come mostly from the Czech Republic, Poland and Russia. Its oil and gas reserves are relatively small. Hungary`s uranium resources are limited to those of the Mecsek deposit. The Mecsek mine and underground facility was the only uranium producer in Hungary. The complex began operation in 1956 and was producing ore from a depth of 100-1000m until 1997 when it was finally shut down because of changes in market conditions. The known uranium resources in Hungary are recoverable at about the costs 130-260 USD /KgU. From 2006 there are some new uranium exploration projects to explore the area if market conditions allow the restart of uranium mining in Hungary.
TABLE 4: ENERGY STATISTICS
| Average Annual Growth Rate (%) | |||||
| ENERGY CONSUMPTION** | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2000 - 2007 |
| TOTAL | 0.80 | 0.66 | 0.76 | 0.71 | 1.10 |
| - Solids | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.03 | - | - |
| - Liquids | 0.25 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 3.30 |
| - Gases | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.33 | 0.26 | -0.84 |
| ENERGY PRODUCTION | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2000 - 2007 |
| TOTAL | 0.59 | 0.47 | 0.44 | 0.43 | -1.30 |
| - Solids*** | 0.17 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.07 | -5.50 |
| - Liquids | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.05 | -3.90 |
| - Gases | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.08 | -2.70 |
| - Nuclear | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.50 |
| - Hydro | - | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | - |
| - Other Renewables | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 24.00 |
| NET IMPORT (IMP - EXP) | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2000 - 2007 |
| TOTAL | 0.61 | 0.59 | 0.73 | 0.70 | 2.60 |
* Latest available data
** Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.
*** Solid fuels include coal, lignite
Source: Hungarian Power Companies Ltd.
The Hungarian energy policy aims at maintaining a balance between security of supply, cost-effectiveness, energy efficiency and protection of the environment. The EU accession in 2004 has changed the energy outlook in Hungary. The transposition of the Acquis Communautaire and the unification of Hungarian markets with EU markets, including conformity with the relevant EU directives, are acting as the main drivers for energy policy development.
Hungary has successfully introduced the legislation laying the foundation for market reform in line with the most recent EU Gas and Electricity Market Directives. From 1 July 2007, all electricity and gas customers became fully eligible to freely select their supplier. An act on electricity (Act LXXXVI of 2007) has been adopted by the Hungarian Parliament. The aim of the act is full liberalization of the electricity market in order to enhance economic competitiveness and provide sustainable security of supply. The Act is in harmony with the requirements of the European Union. The provisions of the Act came into force partly from 15 October 2007 and from 1 January 2008. In the beginning of 2008 the electricity market has become fully liberalized. Nevertheless 2008 is considered a transition period, the players of the market have to learn the new rules. Real market competition is expected in 3-4 years. Hungarian electricity consumers are paying for substantial subsidies to the renewables and combined heat and power (CHP) sectors through levies on their tariffs.
In February 2008 the National Climate Change Strategy for the period of 2008-2025 was adopted by the Hungarian Parliament. The strategy is emphasizing the need for increasing energy efficiency, energy savings and the use of renewable energies (wind, solar, geothermic, biomass). It does not mention nuclear energy as part of the concept.
In April 2008 a resolution on a new energy policy concept for the period of 2008-2020 was adopted by the Parliament. The main goals are aiming at increasing the security of supply, competitiveness and sustainability. It also includes the emphasis on increasing energy efficiency and energy saving as well as the use of renewable energy forms. It deals with the future of nuclear energy, too. According to the resolution the Government should start working on the preparation of the decision on new nuclear capacity for the replacement of the old plants and the proposal should be submitted to the Parliament in time. The Government should create the necessary conditions for the implementation of the programs aimed at the final disposal of radioactive wastes. The Government should inform the Parliament on the implementation of the energy policy at least in every two years and in case of need it should propose the review of the concept.
The reform of the electricity industry commenced in 1994-95, when Act No. XLVIII of 1994 on the Production, Transportation and Supply of Electricity was formulated and came into effect. The Hungarian Energy Office was established in 1994. The privatisation of the electricity sector began and took place in several phases. At present, the majority of power stations and 100% of the electricity suppliers (the grid and the distributors) are privately owned.
In Hungary the electricity policy is integrated part of the energy policy. The most important document which based the Hungarian electricity market liberalisation was “Principles of Hungarian Energy Policy and a New Business Model”. It was adopted by the Government in 1999 (Government Resolution No. 2199/1999).
Hungary became the member-state of the European Union on 1st May 2004 and it necessitated further harmonizing the Hungarian legal framework to the EU law. An important step of the harmonisation was the adoption of a new Act on Electricity LXXXVI (2007) which had been passed by the Parliament on 25 June 2007. The harmonisation and the electricity policy objectives have reflected in the Act. The aim of the Act is the effective operation of the competitive electricity market. Access to the electricity grid is guaranteed at regulated prices. Transmission, distribution and system operation tariffs are set and published by the Minister of Transport, Telecommunication and Energy. New capacities are established on a commercial basis through an authorization process. The new Act regulates the rules of full market opening effective from 2008.
Delayed by half a year than set in EU Directive, the market was fully opened on 1 January 2008. To supply the vulnerable consumers, universal service supplier licences were issued in addition to the licence types in use earlier. In parallel with the abolishment of public utility supply, also the licence for public utility wholesale was abolished. The Committee investigated the compatibility of long term contracts with the competitive market, which contracts aimed to prepare the privatisation in the single buyer model. In its decision No. C-41/2005, published on 4 June 2008, the Committee stated that the contracts implied prohibited state subsidy and ordered to terminate them and to repay the prohibited state subsidy. Thereby, the system of long term contracts ceased at the end of 2008. Due to the lack of generation sources in the region and the high oil prices, the full market opening resulted in non-expected price raise also on the domestic market. The Electricity Act was again amended in June 2008 to ensure an “intervention possibility” in determining the prices. Based thereon and after identifying the participants with considerable market power, the Hungarian Energy Office ordered MVM Trade ZRt. and GTER ZRt. to apply electricity price caps. The universal service category includes the household consumers and (former public utility) low voltage consumers with nominal current lower than 3×50 A. In this circle, authority (regulated) pricing continues to exist. The competitive market consumers have to purchase the power from the traders and have to sign a network use contract with the network licence holder competent in the relevant area. Authority pricing now concerns only the system use charges, the prices of electricity traders are set by the competitive market. However, the network access is ensured for each market participant. The relevant laws are available on the website of the Hungarian Energy Office (www.eh.gov.hu)
The responsibility of the reliable, efficient and environment-friendly energy supply for Hungary belongs to the Ministry of Transport, Telecommunication and Energy (www.khem.gov.hu) established in 2008. Directly under the top political level the energy issues handled by the State Secretary for Energy. Development, competitiveness, security and sustainability are the key words directing the activity of the ministry.
The Hungarian Energy Office (MEH) (www.eh.gov.hu) is currently responsible for licensing energy suppliers, supervising the satisfaction of consumer demand as well as the standards of service provision, and protecting consumer interests. Pursuant to Section XIX of Electricity Act, the Hungarian Energy Office is an independent governmental office with separate and independent financial management. The MEH is self-financing. Licensees are charged supervisory and administration fee for their activities. Following a proposal by the Ministry of Transport, Telecommunication and Energy, the prime minister appoints and releases the MEH president and vice-president. Their appointment is for a six-year term. MEH resolutions can only be challenged and amended in court. The goal of MEH is to ensure the market operation, to promote the competition and to effectuate the efficiency requirements and principle of least cost, to sustain and improve security of supply and to protect the interests of users and license holders as well as to regulate the prices in order to have a fair competition.
Ministry of Environment and Water manages reduction of pollution from the energy industry. The Ministry has main responsibility on climate change issues, including the EU ETS. The Ministry is also dealing with some aspects of sustainable energy management (energy efficiency, energy saving and renewable issues). Its activity mainly concerns the energy sector through environmental (air, water-quality, waste management, etc.) regulation. The Environmental Policy Department of the Ministry integrates the environmental aspects into other policies, therefore environmental protection is an integral part of sustainable energy policies.
According to the legislation in force, the approval of the Government or the Parliament is needed for the establishment of power plants above 200 MW capacity. Between 200 and 600 MW capacity, it is the right of the Government to give the approval, while above 600 MW capacity, the Parliament has to approve it. Any nuclear installation including power and research reactors should be approved by the Parliament independently of their capacity.
In the last decade, Hungary made substantial progress in restructuring its electricity sector and creating a market-oriented fully EU conform regulatory framework. Today, the power industry is restructured and mainly privatised. Its prices cover costs.
The figure 1. below shows the simplified model of the Hungarian electricity industry.
The Hungarian Power Companies Ltd. (MVM Zrt.) (www.mvm.hu) plays a decisive role in the secure and reliable electricity supply of Hungary. The MVM Zrt. – together with the Group it controls – constitutes the most significant domestic group of companies in national ownership. The members of the Group are well-known actors in the Hungarian electricity sector. MVM Rt. is primarily responsible for the public utility wholesale of electricity with a turnover covering around three-fourths of the whole domestic power wholesale. The transmission activity of MVM Rt. is the other key factor in the domestic power supply. On the high-voltage transmission lines the company transmits the electric power obtained from domestic power plants and from import resources to the distributors, who directly sell it to the consumers. The MVM Group plays an active part in power generation as well. It is primarily the Paks Nuclear Power Plant that has a crucial share in the domestic power generation and therefore, in ensuring a favourable price for electric energy. The MVM Group has no direct access to the consumers. In 2005 the still indirectly (through MVM) state owned Independent MAVIR Rt. merged with MVM Rt. In consequence of a new Governmental Decree (246/2005(XI.10)) about the execution of the former Electricity Act (CX. 2001), the activity and responsibility of MAVIR has became much wider. Until the end of 2005 MAVIR ZRt. had the licence of System Operation, now from the beginning of 2006 MAVIR ZRt. has received a licence for Transmission as well.
Licensees in electricity generation:
AES Tisza Eromu Kft. www.aes.hu
Bakonyi Eromu Rt. www.bakonyi.hu
Mátrai Eromu Rt. www.mert.hu
PANNONPOWER Rt. www.pannonpower.hu
Vértesi Eromu Rt. www.vert.hu (Member of the MVM Group)
Paksi Atomeromu Rt. www.npp.hu (Member of the MVM Group)
Csepeli Áramtermelo Kft. www.atel.hu
Budapesti Eromu Rt. www.bert.hu
EMA-POWER Kft. www.emapower.hu
GTER Kft. www.gter.hu (Member of the MVM Group)
Transmission and public service wholesale licensee:
Hungarian Power Companies Ltd. (MVM Zrt.). www.mvm.hu
System operation licensee:
Magyar Villamosenergia-ipari Rendszerirányító Rt. (MAVIR Zrt.)) www.mavir.hu
There are six privatised regional distribution companies responsible for operation of networks with voltage 120 kV and below as well as supply for the customers.
Észak-dunántúli Áramszolgáltató Rt. www.edasz.hu
Délmagyarországi Áramszolgáltató Rt. www.demasz.hu
E.ON Dél-dunántúli Áramszolgáltató Rt. www.eon-deldunantul.com
E.ON Tiszántúli Áramszolgáltató Rt. www.eon-tiszantul.com
Budapesti Elektromos Muvek Rt. www.elmu.hu
E.ON Észak-magyarországi Áramszolgáltató Rt. www.eszakdunantul.com
The total installed capacity of the electricity industry was 9139.8 MW(e) in 2008. It increased by 125.8 MW(e) from 2007.
The capacity structure of the Hungarian electricity system is presently well balanced, with about 40% nuclear share. The electricity production from renewable energy sources is growing in accordance with the EU directive on green electricity. Though the Hungarian target is 3,6% for 2010 more than 6 % of the electricity came from renewable sources (wind, hydro and biomass) in 2008. The Hungarian energy supply is almost 70% import dependent, therefore its security is a crucial priority of the national energy strategy. The safe, successful and profitable operation of the state owned Paks Nuclear Power Plant greatly contributes to meet this challenge. The obligatory stockpiling of nuclear fuel for two years is also an essential element in ensuring the stability of supply in case of any disturbances in import. In 2008 the gross domestic electricity production of Hungary has not changed much (39.108 TWh compared to 39.129 TWh in 2007), the net electricity import slightly decreased (from 3.987 to 3.903 TWh). The demand for electric energy in 2008 also slightly decreased (43.011 compared to 43.116 TWh).
TABLE 5: ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION & CAPACITY
| Average Annual Growth Rate (%) | |||||||
| Capacity of Electrical Plants [GWe] | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2000 - 2007 |
| TOTAL | 2.48 | 4.98 | 6.60 | 8.29 | 8.38 | 8.71 | 0.70 |
| - Thermal | - | - | - | 6.32 | 6.35 | 6.63 | 0.70 |
| - Hydro | - | - | - | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
| - Nuclear | - | - | - | 1.85 | 1.87 | 1.87 | 0.10 |
| - Wind | - | - | - | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 100.00 |
| - Other Renewables | - | - | - | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.60 |
| Electricity Production (TWh) | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2000 - 2007 |
| TOTAL** | 35.19 | 35.76 | 39.92 | 1.90 | |||
| - Thermal | 20.62 | 19.78 | 23.15 | 1.75 | |||
| - Hydro | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.21 | 2.40 | |||
| - Nuclear | 14.18 | 13.83 | 14.68 | 0.50 | |||
| - Wind | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 71.40 | |||
| - Other Renewables | 0.22 | 1.93 | 1.83 | 105.00 | |||
| Total Electricity Consumption (TWh) | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2000 - 2007 |
| TOTAL | 35.70 | 39.45 | 40.58 | 2.00 | |||
(1) Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.
* Latest available data
Source: Hungarian Power Companies Ltd.
TABLE 6: ENERGY RELATED RATIOS
| 1990 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | |
| Energy Consumption Per Capita (GJ/Capita) | 77.3 | 64.6 | 75.1 | 70.5 |
| Electricity Consumption Per Capita (kWh/Capita) | 3,500 | 3,906 | 4,030 | |
| Electricity Production/Energy Production (%) | 27.0 | 29.2 | 33.7 | |
| Nuclear/Total Electricity (%) | 40.3 | 38.7 | 36.8 | |
| Ratio of External Dependency (%)** | 75.4 | 89.1 | 96.7 | 97.9 |
(1) Net import / Total energy consumption.
* Latest available data
Source: Hungarian Statistical Office
The first Hungarian reactor was built for research purposes at Csillebérc on the outskirts of Budapest in 1959. The reactor, of soviet origin and refurbished by Hungarian experts after 30 years of operation, was put into operation again by the Atomic Energy Research Institute in 1993. The Budapest Research Reactor is a tank type reactor with 10 MWth power.
The Nuclear Training Reactor of the Institute of Nuclear Techniques (INT) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics was put into operation in 1971. Since then it takes part in education in nuclear field. It is a pool type reactor with 100 kWth power.
In 1966, it was decided to construct a nuclear power plant in Hungary. The decision included two WWER-440 type, 230 model reactors. The construction work started in 1968, but it was interrupted in 1970 because, at that time, the oil-fired stations were considered to be more economic. The actual construction work started after the oil crisis in 1975. The final decision included four second generation reactors, i.e. WWERs-440/213, instead of the two 230 model reactors, all to be part of one nuclear power plant. The plant is located about 5 km south of the town Paks, on the right bank of the river Danube. Since 1987, these four reactors have been generating electricity to the Hungarian electric energy system. The installed capacity of the reactors was 4 times 440 MW(e). Earlier upgrades of the secondary circuit and turbine resulted in
cca. 470 MWe with an unchanged thermal capacity at all four units. An upgrade of the primary side had been decided to increase the nominal power by 8% to 1875 MWth, resulting in about 500 MWe generated power per unit. The power uprate was completed in 2009.
Hungary`s national policy concerning the application of atomic energy is regulated by law. The basic purposes of Act CXVI of 1996 are those of protecting health and safety of the population and protecting the environment. The requirements of the Act state that the use of atomic energy is allowed only in a manner provisioned by law and under the permanent control of the competent authority. Regardless of what aspect of atomic energy is being considered safety is a priority.
Licensees:
Paks Nuclear Power Plant Ltd.; (www.npp.hu) (It has four WWERs-440/213 type power reactors.)
Public Agency for Radioactive Waste Management (www.rhk.hu). It operates the Interim Spent Fuel Storage Facility at Paks and the Radioactive Waste Treatment and Disposal Facility (RWTDF) at Püspökszilágyi that manages low and intermediate level waste generated by medical, industrial and research applications.
KFKI Atomic Energy Research Institute (www.kfki.hu) It operates the Budapest Research Reactor.
Institute of Nuclear Techniques of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (www.reak.bme.hu/nti/) It operates the BME Training Reactor.
Governmental organisations with responsibility in nuclear field:
Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority (HAEA) (www.haea.gov.hu) regulates complexly the nuclear sector. Establishing the regulatory duties in connection with the safety of the peaceful application of nuclear energy, particularly with the safety of nuclear facilities under normal and accidental conditions and with nuclear emergencies is a basic task of the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority. In addition, the HAEA is required to harmonise and handle the related public information activities. Acting independently and supervised by a minister appointed by the Prime Minister, the HAEA is primarily concerned with ensuring nuclear safety in accordance with the law. In May 2008 the Minister of Transport, Telecommunication and Energy has taken over the supervision of HAEA from the Minister of Justice and Law Enforcement. The Director General of the HAEA and his Deputies are appointed and relieved by the Prime Minister. The HAEA resolutions can only be challenged and amended in court.
The Ministry of Health undertakes the tasks of the authority regarding issues related to radiation protection and concerning the facility-level licensing and supervision of the storage of radioactive wastes. Other competent administrative bodies take part as special authorities in the licensing procedure of the Ministry of Health.
The Ministry of Environment and Water is responsible for establishing air and water quality standards, limits in radioactive releases from nuclear facilities, as well as for controlling the releases at the facilities to the environment.
Research Institutes:
The KFKI Atomic Energy Research Institute (KFKI AEKI, Budapest) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences operates the 10 MWth Budapest Research Reactor. It is active in several fields of nuclear technology such as reactor physics, thermal-hydraulics, health physics, simulator techniques, reactor chemistry. (homepage: www.kfki.hu/~aekihp/)
The Institute of Nuclear Research (ATOMKI, Debrecen) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences operates a 20 MeV cyclotron and a 5 MeV Van de Graaff accelerator, and is active on several fields of nuclear physics and nuclear techniques. (homepage: www.atomki.hu)
- The "Frédéric Joliot Curie" National Research Institute for Radiobiology and Radiohygiene (OSSKI, Budapest) performs a wide spectrum of research including the biological effects of radiation and radioisotopes, radiohygiene (operational and environmental), sterilisation, detoxification etc. (homepage: www.osski.hu)
- The Nuclear Safety Research Institute (NUBIKI, Budapest) works in the field of safety analysis of nuclear power plants, PSA and severe accidents, noise analysis, etc. (homepage: www.nubiki.hu)
- The Institute of Nuclear Techniques of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME NTI) operates a research reactor for training purposes, teaches nuclear technology for engineers, physicists, chemists and environmentalists, and performs research in some specialised field. (homepage: www.reak.bme.hu)
- The Power Engineering and Contractor Co. (ETV-EROTERV Co., Budapest) works in the field of design, construction, commissioning and operating management of nuclear facilities. Its activities include waste management (treatment, storage and disposal). (homepage: www.etv.hu)
- The Institute of Isotopes (MTA IKI) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences performs a wide variety of research related to the use of radioactive materials and nuclear techniques, among them a research and development program for nuclear safeguards. They provide the expert support and the laboratory backgrounds for the HAEA. (homepage: www.iki.kfki.hu)
Taking into account the energy situation in Hungary the operation of the only nuclear power plant is crucial. The design lifetime of the VVER-440/213 Units at Paks is 30 years, the operational license is formally limited in time by the planned operational lifetime. Like in other countries, the current Hungarian legislation for nuclear energy allows the renewal of the operation license, if the safety of the continuation of the operation can be demonstrated, and the renewal is approved by the responsible authorities.
TABLE 7: STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
| Station | Type | Net Capacity | Operator | Status | Reactor Supplier | Construction Date+ | Grid Date++ | Commercial Date | Shutdown Date | UCF for Year** |
| PAKS-1 | PWR | 470 | Paks NPP Ltd. | Operational | AEE | 1974/08/01 | 1982/08/10 | 1983/08/10 | N/A | |
| PAKS-2 | PWR | 473 | Paks NPP Ltd. | Operational | AEE | 1974/08/01 | 1984/09/06 | 1984/11/14 | N/A | |
| PAKS-3 | PWR | 473 | Paks NPP Ltd. | Operational | AEE | 1979/10/01 | 1986/09/28 | 1986/12/01 | N/A | |
| PAKS-4 | PWR | 473 | Paks NPP Ltd. | Operational | AEE | 1979/10/01 | 1987/08/16 | '1987/11/01 | N/A |
* UCF (Unit Capability Factor) for the latest available year (only applicable to reactors in operation).
** Latest available data
+ Date, when first major placing of concrete, usually for the base mat of the reactor building is done.
++ Date of the first connection to the grid
Source: PRIS database (www.iaea.org/pris).
The Paks Nuclear Power Plant is about 120 km south of Budapest. In 2009 it has generated 15427,2 GWh of power providing thus 42.97 % of the gross Hungarian electricity production. This amount was generated by four units as follows: Unit 1: 4 026.5 GWh; Unit 2: 4 063.0 GWh; Unit 3: 3 470.5 GWh; Unit 4: 3 867.2 GWh. Since the date of the first connection to the grid of Unit 1, the quantity of all electricity generated by the Paks NPP exceeded the value of 335.2 TWh by the end of 2009.
Figure 2: Map of Hungary indicating the location of Paks NPP
In order to enhance its economical and operational efficiency and to improve its market position, the Paks Nuclear Power Plant commenced an Economical Efficiency Enhancement Programme (EEP) in 2005, principal elements of which are as follows: efficiency enhancement of human resources, power uprating, maintenance optimization, extension of the operational lifetime. The objectives of the EEP were accomplished time-proportionally in 2009.
According to the schedule of the power uprating program the uprating of Units 3 was completed in 2009. During the annual outage of Unit in 2009 the specialists performed the additional required modifications according to the license issued by the HAEA. Following completion of the outage the power of Unit 3 reached the licensed power level of 108 % on 13th of November. Thus the nominal electrical capacity of Unit 3 reached 500 MWe. With this achievement all four Units have been operating at increased power from November 2009, thus the total nominal capacity of Paks Nuclear Power Plant Ltd is 2000 MW. The equipment modifications required to achieve the power upgrading objectives were implemented as part of the annual maintenance work, in accordance with the relevant resolutions and time schedule issued by the Nuclear Safety Directorate of HAEA. The most important modifications were as follows: introduction of new design fuel assemblies to allow power upgrading, modernisation of the in-core monitoring system, reconstruction of the primary pressure control system, and modification of the turbine and its control system.
As part of the power uprate of the reactor units and also for economical reasons a new fuel type with higher enrichment was introduced at the Paks NPP. As a result the amount of necessary fresh fuel decreases and so does the amount of spent fuel. Another important feature of the new fuel is its burnable poison contents, which is applied to increase operational safety. The introduction proceeds according to the international practice step by step, assuming a HAEA license at every step. First test fuel assemblies were used in Units 3 and 4. The first full scale use is expected in 2010 and in 4-5 years new fuel will be used for all four units. In the transitional period mixed cores are used (the present and the new fuel types are used together). Due to the mixed cores (the fuel already put in the reactor core and the new fuel types together) used in the transitional period the core design, the surveillance and control of operation requires increased attention. The license in principle for the modification process was issued in 2009.
On November 14, 2008 Paks NPP has submitted its Lifetime Extension Program (LEP) to the nuclear regulatory body (HAEA). In the resolution of Nuclear Safety Directorate of Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority issued in June 2009 the conditions necessary for execution of the Lifetime Extension Program were approved, and simultaneously further activities and tasks were determined. The preparation of extension of the operation for further 20 years beyond the planned lifetime (30 years) of Paks NPP is continued in accordance with the HAEA`s resolution.
The construction of new reactors at the Paks site has been proposed in order to meet future electricity demand. Under Hungary's Nuclear Energy Act, the government needs to obtain a preliminary conceptual approval from the Parliament before taking specific steps leading to the construction of new nuclear capacity. On 30 March 2009 members of the Hungarian Parliament approved a decision in principle - with 330 yes, 6 no and 10 abstention votes - that permits preparations for new unit(s) at the Paks NPP. According to the explanation to the resolution the preparations to the investment take at least 5 years, while the commissioning planning and implementation would require a minimum of six years thus the construction of a new nuclear unit would need 11 years at least. As the explanation states more than 70% of Hungarians support nuclear power generation in the country. It is anticipated that the first planned unit will be commissioned between 2020 and 2025.
After the go ahead by the Hungarian Parliament the preparatory work related to the extension of Paks NPP have accelerated. The Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority (HAEA) started the preparations for the licensing of the new units by reviewing four important areas including regulatory requirements, licensing framework, technological and safety characteristics of possible new units and international framework. The most important goal of the preparation of HAEA is to adopt the strictest requirements set by the latest results of science and technology and at the same time to avoid any unnecessary complication of the licensing process.
As the part of the preparation for new units the management of the MVM Group founded a project in 2007. The aim of the project was to make the necessary preparations on which the Parliament decision in principle could be based. The project tasks included feasibility studies, preliminary environmental assessment, the evaluation of storage possibilities for spent nuclear fuel elements and radioactive waste, as well as preparation for communication. The current decision of the Parliament in March 2009 is not a direct agreement that new nuclear units will be built. After the Parliament decision a new project was started. The investigations of the experts after receiving the principal consent will provide answers to many issues, including financing and investment methods, technical specifications, competitiveness, compatibility with the Hungarian electricity system, the effects on the environment, the type of the units and the selection of the constructor. The analysis and the evaluation of all these aspects are necessary to make a responsible decision which will determine the energy supply and the environmental status of the country for many years to come.
Paks Nuclear Power Plant Ltd. is a state owned business entity. More than 99% of the shares are held by the Hungarian Electricity Board Ltd. (with authority granted by the state) while the remaining part is held by local authorities. The operator is the Paks NPP Ltd. the technical supporting organisations (TSO) are listed in 2.1.2 (Current organisational chart)
Decommissioning is not a current issue for the Hungarian nuclear facilities. Nevertheless this question has been covered in regulations, as the final phase of the life-cycle of the installations. As for all other phases, it requires a nuclear safety licence. For decommissioning, a multi-step licensing procedure is established, where the first step is to obtain the authorities’ consent to terminate operation. A further requirement is a valid environmental protection licence based on environmental impact assessment and public hearing. As in all phases of the life-cycle of a facility, radiation protection authorities are involved in these licensing processes, and they license separately the appropriate radiation protection programme and radiation protection organisation. During the dismantling, decontamination and other steps, an ongoing task of the authority is the control of the radiation situation within the facility and around it, and the monitoring of personal doses and the discharges and the radiation in the environment. Emergency plans have to be updated with new or likely scenarios and any necessary organisational changes required must be adjusted accordingly.
Public Limited Company for Radioactive Waste Management is a 100% state owned, non profit oriented enterprise, which was established by the Director General of Hungarian Atomic Energy Agency on behalf of the Government. Its tasks include the storage and final disposal of radioactive wastes, generated during the use of nuclear technology, and the dismantling of nuclear installations.
Fuel Cycle
Hungary has 20,000 metric tons of exploitable uranium resources and 10,000 metric tons of additional reserves. There are three areas in Hungary where uranium occurrences are known, but only one region in Mecsek Mountains has been exploited. Hungary was mining uranium ore, which was processed to yellowcake at Mecsek and then shipped to Russia. Fuel cycle services including the fabrication of fuel assemblies, the shipping of the fabricated fuel assemblies to ungary, and the return of spent fuel to the former USSR were guaranteed by the former USSR when Hungary purchased Soviet reactors including the fabrication of fuel assemblies, the shipping of the fabricated fuel assemblies to Hungary, and the return of spent fuel to the former USSR. Hungary does not have other fuel cycle capabilities such as fuel conversion, enrichment, and fabrication.
There are no reprocessing capabilities in Hungary, and no plans to develop any. Hungarian spent fuel has been reprocessed in Russia and the recovered plutonium does not have to be returned to Hungary. Hungary has at present no plans for recycling plutonium as fuel.
A new fuel management strategy was initiated in 1993 and completed in 1995. The strategy includes the creation of the conditions for purchasing nuclear fuel from second supplier and the preparatory work for the use of a new type of Russian fuel assembly with profiled enrichment to allow changeover to 4 year's fuel cycle. The first Russian produced profiled fuel, with a mean enrichment of 3.82%, was loaded into Unit 3 during 2000.
Spent Fuel
According to the Hungarian-Soviet Inter-Governmental Agreement on Co-operation in the Construction of the Paks Nuclear Power Plant, concluded on 28 December 1966, and the Protocol concluded on 1 April 1994 attached to this Agreement, the Soviet and/or Russian party undertakes to accept spent fuel assemblies from the Paks Nuclear Power Plant in such a manner that the radioactive waste and other by-products arising from the reprocessing of such fuel is not returned to Hungary. Until 1992 the return of the spent fuel assemblies was conducted without problems, under conditions which were very favourable for Hungary, but which nevertheless deviated from normal international practice. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union however, this method of returning spent fuel became less and less reliable. For this reason and in the interests of ensuring the undisturbed operation of the nuclear power plant, it became necessary to find an interim solution (50 years) for the storage of spent fuel assemblies.
The Hungarian Atomic Energy Commission issued a licence on 4 February 1995 to the Hungarian Power Companies Ltd. for the construction of a spent fuel interim dry storage facility at the Paks site. The GEC Alsthom's modular dry storage technology was chosen. The facility is designed to store spent fuel for 50 years and was commissioned in 1996. The advantage of the modular system is that the modules can be built at different times and handled separately from each other. The first section of the Interim Spent Fuel Storage Facility consisting of three modules was put into operation in 1997. Expansion of the facility is going on in accordance with the increasing needs of the Paks NPP. By now 16 storage modules are ready (each with the capacity for storing 450 assemblies). In December 2009 already 6067 assemblies were stored in the facility. The stepwise enlargement of the facility with additional modules is a permanent task. According to plans, by 2011 four further modules will be constructed. In 2009 the necessary subsoil stabilization work was carried out and the construction itself can start in 2010. According to plans, the modules 17-20 will be operational by the end of 2011.
Waste Management
The basic regulation in force at present, the Act CXVI of 1996 on Atomic Energy, expresses Hungary’s national policy in the application of atomic energy. Among other aspects, it regulates the management of radioactive waste and authorises the Government and the competent Ministers to issue executive orders specifying the most important requirements in this field. The Hungarian Parliament approved the present Act on Atomic Energy in December 1996; the Act entered into force on 1 June 1997. For radioactive waste repositories the Act prescribes that Parliament’s preliminary approval in principle is required to initiate activities for preparing for their establishment.
In accordance with the basic rules laid down in the Act, radioactive waste management shall not impose any undue burden on future generations. To satisfy this requirement, the long-term costs of waste disposal and of decommissioning of the nuclear power plant shall be paid by the generations that enjoy the benefits of nuclear energy production and applications of isotopes. Accordingly, by the Act and its executive orders, a Central Nuclear Financial Fund was established on 1 January 1998 to finance radioactive waste disposal, interim storage and disposal of spent fuel, as well as the decommissioning of nuclear facilities. The Government authorised the Director General of the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority to establish the Public Agency for Radioactive Waste Management; this agency has been in operation since 2 June 1998.
On the basis of the Act, the Public Agency for Radioactive Waste Management shall design and carry out radioactive waste management in such a way that it shall be safe during the whole duration of the activity and it shall not affect human health and the environment abroad to a greater extent than the accepted value within the country.
In the field of radioactive waste management the following projects are underway:
Disposal of high level and long lived radioactive waste
In 1995 a programme was launched for solving the disposal of high level and long lived radioactive wastes. (Even if the spent fuel of Paks NPP can later be shipped back to Russia a domestic repository must be created for other high level waste, including decommissioning waste). The programme mainly focuses on investigations in the area of the Boda Claystone Formation. An underground laboratory is to operate from 2017 to 2032, and the repository is due to be operated by the end of the 2040’s.
Disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive waste from the Paks NPP
For the disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive waste from the Paks NPP – following a country wide screening and ensuring public acceptance – explorations have been carried out in the vicinity of Bátaapáti (about 45 km south-west of Paks). Reflecting the results of the extensive research work carried out, the Hungarian Geological Survey declared the site as geologically suitable for housing a repository. In November 2005, after a decade spent with siting in the vicinity of Bátaapáti (Tolna County) for a L/ILW geological repository the Hungarian Parliament gave green light for construction by its resolution 85/2005. (XI. 23.) OGY, giving its preliminary approval in principle for the construction. It is a formal requirement in accordance with the Act on Atomic Energy. The fact that at the vote on the joint resolution about the life-extension of the Paks NPP and the waste repository 96.6 % of the lawmakers voted in favour, clearly shows that in these questions there is a broad political consensus in Hungary. Prior to the vote in Parliament, residents of Bátaapáti voted 91 % in favour of having the repository, at a local referendum.
In 2007 the program progressed according to the plans. Underground research and licensing activities, as well as construction work were carried out. The investment is facilitated by the Government Decree No. 257/2006. (XII. 15.) Korm. declaring that the licensing procedure of the repository is of outstanding importance. The Decree requires priority for the licensing procedure and shortens the deadlines. The competent authority issued the environmental licence in 2007. The construction licence for the surface part (central and technological buildings) and for 4 underground disposal vaults entered into force in 2008. By October 2008, the surface buildings of the National Radioactive Waste Repository reached completion. Later, the authority granted the operation licence valid for the surface part of the facility. The operation licence allows the interim storage for 3000 drums (200 l capacity each) containing low-level solid radioactive waste from the Paks NPP. The first contingents of waste were delivered to the repository by the end of 2008. According to plans, the first two underground disposal vaults of the repository can be put into operation around 2012 after extending the operation licence to cover future disposal activities in the repository.
Radioactive Waste Treatment and Disposal Facility
The near-surface repository for institutional low and intermediate level radioactive wastes, the Radioactive Waste Treatment and Disposal Facility in Püspökszilágy, was commissioned in 1976. The disposal capacity is 5040 m3, and by the end of 2004 the repository became full. However, according to long term plans, the repository is expected to be in operation for additional decades, receiving radioactive waste from the small-scale producers of the country. To this end, measures are to be taken to provide additional disposal capacity within the site. The removal of certain long-lived and high activity spent sources from the vaults within the framework of the safety enhancement programme provides a good opportunity to achieve this goal.
A recent achievement in the facility is the conversion of the existing treatment building into a centralised interim store that can serve as a ‘buffer storage’ until new disposal capacity is available in the repository. The renovated building is also designed and licensed for the interim storage of long lived radioactive waste, sealed sources, until a high level waste repository will be available.
Legal framework for the implementation of R&D program is established in the Act on Atomic Energy (Act CXVI of 1996 on Atomic Energy), according to which the technical support activities needed for improving the safety of the peaceful application of nuclear energy shall be financed via the HAEA. Thus it is the responsibility of the HAEA to manage the scientific-technical support for the nuclear safety regulatory activities. For managing the quality of such a complex program the HAEA defined its basic principles and requirements for performing technical support activities. The scientific-technical support is provided by a group of scientific-technical institutions and other engineering organizations (Technical Support Organizations – TSO). As a rule, the scientific-technical co-operation with the Partner TSOs (with a wide range of competency in the nuclear facility operation and regulation) is based on a long term memorandum accepted and signed by both the HAEA and the Partner TSOs. Up to now, there are several strategic Partner TSOs, like the KFKI Atomic Energy Research Institute AEKI, the Nuclear Safety research Institute (NUBIKI) and the Nuclear Technology Institute of Budapest Technical University BME-NTI. The requested technical support from a TSO is described in a contract in which the deadline and the expected quality are further defined. In urgent regulatory matters the strategic TSO Partners provide technical support quickly and flexibly on a free of charge basis. The system of TSOs ensures that the HAEA has appropriate engineering and scientific reserve capacities to handle situations, which need fast and technically correct decisions.
To efficiently harmonize the TSO co-operation, the HAEA has elaborated a mid term R&D concept which has been regularly updated. The recent one is valid for the period 2005-2008. The R&D concept assigns the main goals, the area of the support program and the most important requirements for competencies of contractors.
Areas of R&D activities change time by time, new safety upgrading measures and operation improving modifications come up at the licensees, age dependent and decommissioning related tasks arise and also the nuclear safety regulation has to be upgraded periodically. The most important R&D areas are:
Support of regulatory activities (evaluation of safety analyses, development of alternative computer codes, questions related to the behaviour of the fuel in given conditions);
Support of activities related to the power upgrading and operational licence prolongation (ageing effects regulation);
Decommissioning;
Operational safety (human performance, safety culture evaluation, event analysis techniques)
Support to prepare risk informed nuclear safety regulation;
Design basis and severe accident analyses.
Collection of data about knowledge and competencies of TSOs was started in 2005 and 18 institutions have been surveyed about their competencies and co-operation affinity in 10 main areas of regulatory interest divided into 48 specific sub areas. As a result, it was concluded that in Hungary all major scientific-technical areas important for nuclear safety were covered by research or technical institutions and in every of the 48 sub areas of regulatory importance there were at least two independent experts.
The Hungarian research organisations continued the necessary analytical activities related to the Paks NPP lifetime extension. The analysis of the integrity of the primary circuit has led to satisfactory results, however, some further refinement of the methodology is still needed in order to avoid technical measures.
The introduction of burnable absorbers is the next important modification at Paks NPP. This will compensate for the increased fuel cycle costs of cores at power uprated with 8%. The R&D background necessary to apply burnable absorbers is fully available in Hungary, however, appropriate core monitoring still requires research work. This research work is based on detailed measurements of flow mixing and temperature distributions within the fuel assemblies.
After licensing the lifetime extension, Paks NPP is expected to be operated without major technical modifications and will not give so many safety research tasks to research organisations. However, lifetime extension will presumably cover important plant modifications, like I&C reconstruction. If the construction of new nuclear units in Hungary will be approved, the research organisations will be definitely involved in the licensing and construction process. The strategy of the country and the region concerning the closure of the fuel cycle and the final disposal of spent fuel and high activity waste should be elaborated and this represents a major challenge to the Hungarian research organisations.
The attention of research organisations is also attracted by other nuclear systems. The Generation-4 SCWR (more accurately, its European version, HPLWR) is currently studied in Hungary in the framework of a nationally financed project which gives a good background for participating in an EU project with a similar aim and in several bilateral co-operations. The decision on constructing ITER also attracts scientists to deal with various aspects of fusion technology rather than restricting themselves to plasma physics.
In Hungary both the Licensee and the Authority maintain wide-ranging relations with various international organizations, with other countries and institutions involved in the design, manufacture, installation and operation of nuclear facilities and research institutes.
These relations serve as means of exchanging knowledge and experience. The fact that Hungarian experts are held internationally in high esteem is demonstrated by their active role on different committees, with many of them being board members of international organizations or invited as experts.
Hungary is Member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (since 1957) and the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (since 1996).
Hungary has bilateral governmental agreements with Australia, Austria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Russia, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Ukraine, the United States of America.
There are agreements on mutual information exchange between the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority and other regulatory bodies including that the Czech Republic, Romania, the Slovak Republic and the United States of America.
Regional programmes organised by the EU and the International Atomic Energy Agency play an important role in the co-operation between the regulatory bodies of the neighbouring countries. Moreover, the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority (HAEA) is taking part in a quadrilateral cooperation among the new EU member states including Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Slovenia.
The Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority takes part in several international co-operations including:
European High Level Group on Nuclear Safety and Waste Management organised by the EU (cooperation to progressively develop a common understanding and furthering common approaches in priority domains related to the safety of nuclear installations)
VVER Forum (established by the regulatory bodies of countries operating Soviet designed pressurised water reactors)
Standing committees of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (CNRA, CRPPH, RWMC)
WENRA (Western European Nuclear Regulatory Associations)
NERS (association of countries with small nuclear programmes)
ESARDA (European Safeguards Research and Development Association)
Global Initiative to combat nuclear terrorism
GNEP (Global Nuclear Energy Partnership)
Zangger Committee (dealing with controlling the export of nuclear materials and equipment)
Nuclear Suppliers Group ((NSG) dealing with controlling the export of nuclear materials and equipment and the dual use materials and equipment).
The Paks Nuclear Power Plant is member of several international bodies of major importance including the World Association of Nuclear Power Plant Operators (WANO), the WWER-440 operators' club, the WWER users' group, the International Nuclear Safety Program (the so-called Lisbon Initiative), the Nuclear Maintenance Experience Exchange (NUMEX).
The Hungarian Nuclear Society is a member of the European Nuclear Society (ENS), and the Health Physics Section of the Roland Eötvös Physical Society is a member of the International Radiation Protection Association.
The technical support organizations of the HAEA take part in the international activities including the working groups of the OECD NEA.
The Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BUTE) operates a training reactor with the nominal power of 100 kW. Therefore, this university has a special training program for the engineering-physicist students. The students may choose the nuclear technique module in the 4th and 5th years of their studies. Those who have any other kind of degree in engineering or science have a possibility to learn 2 more years at the BUTE to get a nuclear engineer secondary-degree.
There is a particle accelerator at the University of Debrecen which means another source for the specialists in the field of nuclear sciences.
At the Faculty of Science of Eötvös Lóránd University (ELTE), the students of the physics faculty also learn about nuclear techniques and practice at the KFKI Atomic Energy Research Institute.
Paks NPP
The Paks NPP has a special training program for newcomers. At the beginning they have to take part in nuclear courses, where they learn about the basis of radioactivity and about the operation of the NPP. Based on their future work position, they may take further courses on the primary and secondary circuit, on the electrical and mechanical systems of the NPP. There is a full scope simulator for the operator training. The special Maintenance Training Center – established in an IAEA`s model project – also plays a very active role in the staff training. The training system of the Paks NPP is operated on the basis of the IAEA Systematic Approach to Training (SAT) system.
Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority
At the HAEA NSD, the inspectors take part in a predefined training program, which is reviewed annually. The training plan is divided into three parts, mainly the training of newcomers, the refresher training and the specific training. The training plan also includes the utilization of results of the R&D projects.
Newcomers of the HAEA NSD have to complete a special training. It includes all important fields related to the HAEA NSD responsibility areas, and also special training courses at the nuclear power plant and at the other licensees. After the one year program the newcomers have to pass the so-called inspector exam, where they shall analyze real events regarding the licensing, supervision and investigation process of the HAEA NSD.
At the HAEA NSD a knowledge profile survey takes place biannually. The inspectors rate their knowledge profile in predefined expertise areas (regulation, quality assurance, construction of nuclear facilities, lifecycle of nuclear facilities, operation of nuclear facilities, technical-scientific background, safety analysis, radiation protection, management of nuclear and radioactive material, safety culture, human factor, supervision, nuclear emergency preparedness, office technology). The knowledge profile is evaluated according to the current needs.
The longer term training program contains training directions based on the knowledge profile survey and on the future projects and strategy of the HAEA NSD, for example: bigger systems of the Paks NPP, life-time extension at the Paks NPP, decommissioning, R&D projects, legal environment, etc.
As concerning public opinion on nuclear energy according to the latest poll conducted in July 2009 77 % agrees with the operation of Paks NPP and 20 % opposes it. Moreover 55% even supports the construction of a new unit at the Paks site while 31% is against it. The favorable results are due to the communication efforts of the nuclear society including all players in nuclear field. Openness and transparency are the main values in communication about nuclear energy. There are many ways to communicate with stakeholders including informing the media about any important event. Seminars, presentations, exhibitions and visits to nuclear facilities are organised to give information about nuclear energy and future plans.
Before 1991, the Hungarian Atomic Energy Commission (HAEC) managed most of the nuclear aspects, which were related to international relations, preparation for legislation, internal relations, and nuclear regulatory and licensing activities. The scope of activities and responsibilities of the HAEC were redefined in a Government Decree, which came into force on 1 January 1991. The HAEA, as a new, nation-wide central state administration organization was established under the supervision of the President of the HAEC. The revised Act on Atomic Energy adopted at the end of 1996 (Act CXVI of 1996 on Atomic Energy) and its Decrees on Implementation introduced further changes in the scope of authority and organizational structure of the national regulatory bodies related to nuclear safety.
Owing to the above-mentioned changes in competence, the licensing of nuclear facilities became the responsibility of HAEA. In addition, the regulatory control over certain constructional, technical radiation protection and nuclear accident prevention issues was also transferred into the scope of the authority of the HAEA.
Hungary’s accession to the European Union required a further strengthening of the regulatory bodies’ independence. To this end, the Parliament amended the Act on Atomic Energy in 2003. Pursuant to this amendment, the operation of HAEC was discontinued and one of the ministers of the Government appointed by the Prime Minister – currently the Minister of Transport, Telecommunication and Energy - was given the task to supervise the HAEA. The role of the Director General of the HAEA became more significant: he is responsible for giving an annual account to the government about the safety of the domestic application of nuclear energy, instead of the chairman of the HAEC, furthermore, he shall participate, with consultation right, in the sessions of the Government when any proposal related to the scope of activity of the HAEA is considered.
The amendment of the act established the Atomic Energy Co-ordination Council (AECC), whose most important tasks are to harmonize the activities regarding application of nuclear energy, nuclear safety and radiation protection, as well as to monitor the implementation of laws and regulations and exercise regulatory authority.
The administrative duty of the nuclear safety authority comprises two types of tasks. On the one hand, the authority shall perform the relevant regulatory tasks and issue standards and requirements, while on the other hand, these regulations and requirements must be enforced (it is realized during the implementation of the licensing and inspection/enforcement procedures).
The supervisory competence of the HAEA involve the following activities: it enforces compliance with the provisions of relevant statutory regulations, ensures that the requirements of Nuclear Safety Regulations are observed and the conditions serving as a basis for regulatory licenses are met, and in addition, it monitors the implementation of the measures imposed by the Authority. The HAEA also carries out analysis and assessment activities that are basically related to its licensing and inspection responsibilities. In some cases, the official licensing and inspection activity also entails the initiation of law enforcement measures. Enforcement activities comprise all the measures to enforce the licensees to return to compliance with the regulations in the case of deviations, and also involve those that encourage participants to avoid repetition.
The latest amendment of the Act on Atomic Energy in 2005 (owing to the new general rules of the administrative regulatory procedures), introduced the continuous regulatory supervision as a new term. The supervision may be exercised through on-line computer systems connected to the authority office network. It gave the definition of clients in the licensing and permission cases. Furthermore, the deadlines of the administrative regulatory procedures were also modified for the HAEA and its co-authorities (60+30 days for equipment level licenses, 180+90 days for facility level licenses, 30+30 / 60+30 days for the co-authorities). In case of immanent danger, accident or emergency situation in the nuclear facility, it gave an opportunity for deviations from the procedural rules, as well.
The basic principles of licensing procedure of the nuclear power plant, and the concerned authorities taking part in licensing procedure are regulated by Chapter III of the Act on Atomic Energy. To establish a new nuclear power plant or a new nuclear power plant unit the preliminary consent in principle of Parliament is required for starting preparatory work, whereas to establish ownership of a nuclear power plant that is in operation or to transfer the right of operation the consent in principle of the Government is required. In concordance with regulations in force, a license shall
be obtained from the authorities for all phases of operation (siting, construction, commissioning, operation, decommissioning) during the lifetime of a nuclear power plant. Moreover, a separate license shall be obtained for all plant level or safety related equipment level modifications. Within the licensing procedures, technical aspects are enforced by legally delegated authorities. The Authority shall take account of opinions of legally delegated special authorities. When the installation of a new nuclear power plant is being considered, the precondition for launching the licensing procedure is the existence of an environmental protection license. During the licensing procedure the Licensee prepares a preliminary environmental impact study. The environmental protection authority then sends the preliminary impact study to the relevant authorities to seek the opinion of authorities of potentially affected areas who – in turn – expose it to public view. The environmental protection authority, if it does not reject the detailed environmental impact study that has been submitted, shall subsequently hold a public hearing. Based on the detailed environmental impact study and on any responses received, the environmental protection authority may issue an environmental protection license for the construction and operation of the plant.
The safety-related licensing of a nuclear installation takes place after the environmental licensing. The environmental protection authority plays the role of special authority in the course of licensing a nuclear installation. During the licensing of installations and equipment, and the licensing of their modifications, the contributing procedure of the environmental protection special authority provides the possibility for the civil organizations to act as clients. The decisions of the nuclear safety authority are made public. Those licences to be issued based on Act CX. of 2001 on Electric Energy are also required for establishing and operating a nuclear plant. Licenses are valid for fixed periods; on request and provided that the necessary requirements are fulfilled, they may be extended. A Licensee can appeal against the decisions of the Authority. It has the right to take the case to court.
Every ten years a periodic review of the safety of the nuclear power plant is performed on the basis of a comprehensive, predefined programme known as the Periodic Safety Review. Any decision on the further validity and conditions of the operating license is made within the framework of the review. For certain facilities, beyond the regulatory licensing procedure, the Act on Atomic Energy prescribes higher approval as well.
Main National Laws:
Act CXVI (1996) on Atomic Energy
(Nuclear Law, establishing responsibilities for different area);
Governmental Decree 227/1997. (XII. 10.) on the type, conditions and sum of the liability insurance or other liability financial coverage concerning atomic damage
(Civil nuclear liability)
Act CXVI (1996) on Atomic Energy
(Establishing a regulatory body)
Law-decree 9 of 1972 on the promulgation of the agreement concluded between the Hungarian People’s Republic and the International Atomic Energy Agency for the application of safeguards in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, signed in Vienna on the 6th of March in 1972
Act XC of 1999 on the confirmation and promulgation of the Additional Protocol signed in Vienna on the 26th of November in 1998 in connection with the agreement for the application of the safeguards concerning the treaty on non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, concluded between the Republic of Hungary and the International Atomic Energy Agency and signed in Vienna on the 6th of March in 1972
(Implementing IAEA safeguards)
Act of LIII (1995) on General Rules for Environmental protection
(Rules for environmental protection)
Act of LXXVI (1999) on the Protection of intellectual property rights
(Protection of intellectual property rights)
Governmental decree 263/2004 (IV. 23.) on theregulation of intenational transfer of nuclear and nuclear dual use items
(Import and export controls of nuclear material and items)
Law-decree 8 of 1987 on the promulgation of the convention on physical protection of nuclear materials
(Security principles, including physical protection of nuclear material and facilities and protection of sensitive information)
Act CXVI (1996) on Atomic Energy
(Roles of national government, local government, and stakeholders)
Main Regulations in Nuclear Power:
Government Decree 114/2003. (VII. 29.) on the scope of activities, authority and penalizing rights of the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority, and on the activities of the Nuclear Energy Coordination Council
(Regulation for establishing an authorization system, responsibilities of the operator, inspection and enforcement)
Governmental Decree 89/2005. (V. 5.) (with the modification of Government Decree 249/2005. XI. 18.) on the procedures of the Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority in nuclear safety regulatory matters
Annex No.1: Nuclear Safety Code Volume 1
Authority procedures applied to nuclear power plants
Annex No. 2: Nuclear Safety Code Volume 2
Quality assurance code of nuclear power plants
Annex No. 3: Nuclear Safety Code Volume 3
General requirements for the design of nuclear power plants
Annex No. 4: Nuclear Safety Code Volume 4
Operational safety requirements of nuclear power plants
Annex No. 5: Nuclear Safety Code Volume 5
The nuclear safety code of research reactors
Decree of the Minister of Industry, Trade and Tourism -
(Site selection and approval, safety of nuclear installations)
(Radiation protection, including protection of workers public and environment)
Act CXVI (1996) on Atomic Energy and
Governmental Decree 240/1997. (XII. 18.) on the establishment of the organisation designated for implementing disposal of radioactive waste and spent fuel, as well as decommissioning of nuclear installations, and on the financial source for performing tasks
(Radioactive waste and spent fuel management, including storage and disposal, decommissioning, including funding and institutional control
mining and milling)
Governmental Decree 179/1999. (XII. 10.) on the execution of Act LXXIV of 1999 on Disaster Management and
Governmental Decree 248/1997. (XII. 20.) on the National Nuclear Emergency Response System
(Emergency preparedness)
Decree of the Minister of Transportation and Post 20/1979. (IX. 18.) on the promulgation and inland application of Appendixes “A” and “B” of the European Agreement about the International Public Road Transportation of Dangerous Goods Decree of the Minister of Transportation, Telecommunication and Water 13/1997. (IX. 3.) on the promulgation of the regulation on the safe railway transportation of spent nuclear fuel
Decree of the Minister of Transportation, Telecommunication and Water 14/1997. (IX. 3.) on the transportation, shipment and packaging of radioactive materials
(Transport of radioactive material)
| Entry into force: | 27-May-69 | |
| NPT | ||
| Convention on physical protection of nuclear material | Entry into force: | 08-Feb-87 |
| Convention on early notification of a nuclear accident | Entry into force: | 10-Apr-87 |
| Convention on assistance in the case of a nuclear accident or radiological emergency | Entry into force: | 10-Apr-87 |
| Vienna convention on civil liability for nuclear damage | Entry into force: | 28-Oct-89 |
| Paris convention on third party liability in the field of nuclear energy | Not applicable | |
| Joint protocol relating to the application of the Vienna and Paris conventions | Entry into force: | 27-Apr-92 |
| Protocol to amend the Vienna convention on civil liability for nuclear damage | Signature: | 29-Sep-97 |
| Convention on supplementary compensation for nuclear damage | Not signed | |
| Convention on nuclear safety | Entry into force: | 24-Oct-96 |
| Joint convention on the safety of spent fuel management and on the safety of radioactive waste management | Entry into force: | 18-Jun-01 |
| OTHER RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL TREATIES | ||
| Treaty banning nuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water | Entry into force: | 05-Aug-63 |
| Treaty of the prohibition of the emplacement of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction on the seabed and the ocean floor and in the subsoil thereof | Entry into force: | 13-Aug-71 |
| ZANGGER Committee | Member | |
| Improved procedures for designation of safeguards inspectors | Accepted: | 09-May-88 |
| Nuclear Export Guidelines | Adopted | |
| Acceptance of NUSS Codes | Accepted | |
| Nuclear Suppliers Group | Member | |
| Standard agreements concerning technical assistance to Hungary | Parties: | |
| - United Nations Organization | ||
| - International Labour Organization | ||
| - Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN | ||
| - International Civil Aviation Organization | ||
| - World Health Organization | ||
| - International Telecommunications Union | ||
| - International Atomic Energy Agency | ||
| NATIONAL NUCLEAR ENERGY AUTHORITY | |
| Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority | Tel: (361)-436-4800 |
| H-1539 Budapest P.O. Box 676 | http://www.haea.gov.hu |
| Hungary | |
| HAEA General Nuclear Directorate | Tel: (361) 436 4841 |
| Fax: (361) 436 4843 | |
| HAEA Nuclear Safety Directorate | Tel: (361) 436-4881 |
| NUCLEAR RESEARCH INSTITUTES | |
| Atomic Energy Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences | Tel: (361) 392-2222 |
| KFKI AEKI | Fax: (361) 395-9293 |
| P.O. Box 49 | http://www.kfki.hu/~aekihp |
| 1525 Budapest | |
| Institute of Isotopes (MTA IKI) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences | Tel: (361) 395-9229 |
| P.O. Box 77 | Fax: (361) 395-9080 |
| 1525 Budapest | http://www.iki.kfki.hu |
| Institute of Nuclear Research (ATOMKI Debrecen) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences | Tel: 36-(52) 509-200 |
| P.O.Box. 51 | Fax: 36-(52) 416-181 |
| 4001 Debrecen, | http://www.atomki.hu |
| Nuclear Safety Research Institute | Tel: (361) 392 2700 |
| (NUBIKI) | Fax: (361) 392 2701 |
| 1525 Budapest, POB: 49 | e-mail: nubiki@nubiki.hu |
| http://www.nubiki.hu/ | |
| "Frederic Joliot-Curie" National Research | Tel: 36-1-482-2000 |
| Institute for Radiobiology and Radiohygiene | Fax: 36-1 482-2003 |
| P.O.Box 101, | http://www.osski.hu |
| 1775 Budapest | |
| OTHER NUCLEAR ORGANIZATIONS | |
| Paks Nuclear Power Plant Ltd. | |
| P.O. Box 71 | |
| 7031 Paks | Tel: 36-(75) 505-000 |
| Fax: 36-(75) 506-634, 36-(75) 506-787 | |
| http://www.atomeromu.hu | |
| Public Agency for Radioactive Waste Management (PURAM) | |
| 2040 Budaörs, Puskás Tivadar u. 11. | Tel: (36) 23/423-180 |
| Fax (36) 23/423-181 | |
| http://www.rhk.hu | |
| Power Engineering and Contracting Co. | |
| (ETV-EROTERV) | Tel: 36-1-455-3600, |
| P.O. Box 111 | Fax: 36-1-215-1854 |
| 1450 Budapest | http://www.etv.hu |
| UNIVERSITIES | |
| http://www.elte.hu | |
| Eötvös Loránd University of Sciences | |
| Technical University of Budapest | Phone: 36-1-463-1111 |
| Institute of Nuclear Techniques | Fax: 36-1-463-1954 |
| Muegyetem rkp. 9 | http://www.bme.hu |
| 1111 Budapest | |
| OTHER ORGANIZATIONS | |
| National Széchényi Library | |
| (National Library of Hungary) | |
| National Central Statistical Office | http://www.ksh.hu |
Name of report coordinator
Dr. Elisabeth Besenyei, Head of Public Information
Institution Hungarian Atomic Energy Authority
Contacts
Address: 1036 Budapest, Fényes A. u. 4, HUNGARY
Mail: 1539 Budapest, P.O.B. 676.
Phone: +36-1-436-4861, Fax: +36-1-436-4843,
http://www.haea.gov.hu