JAPAN

(Updated 2020)

PREAMBLE

Japan has numerous nuclear power reactors in operation, accounting for about 7.5% of total power production in 2019. At present, Japan is not considering adding nuclear power generation capabilities or replacing existing facilities. The Government of Japan released the Long-Term Energy Supply and Demand Outlook on 16 July 2015, which set a target of reducing its dependency on nuclear power to 20–22% of electricity generation by 2030. On 3 July 2018, the Cabinet approved the fifth Strategic Energy Plan as the basis for the orientation of Japan’s new energy policy until 2030, and further towards 2050, taking into account changing energy environments inside and outside Japan.

This report provides information on the status and development of nuclear power programmes in Japan, including factors related to the effective planning, decision making and implementation of the nuclear power programme that together lead to safe and economical operations of nuclear power plants.

The CNPP summarizes organizational and industrial aspects of nuclear power programmes and provides information about the relevant legislative, regulatory and international framework in Japan.

1. COUNTRY ENERGY OVERVIEW

1.1. ENERGY INFORMATION

1.1.1. Energy policy

In April 2014, the Government established the fourth Strategic Energy Plan for 2030, stipulating policies to reduce nuclear power dependency, reduce dependency on fossil resources and expand renewable energy in response to the March 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and the subsequent accident at the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station.

Four years after the release of the fourth Strategic Energy Plan, the time has come not only to revise the plans for 2030, but also for Japan to again conceptualize its energy choices and account for a 2050 planning response to the Paris Agreement entering into force. These responses include ultra-long term preparations for decreased dependency on fossil resources in the longer term and adaptive energy environments, among other considerations. For that reason, the fifth Strategic Energy Plan comprises the long term energy supply and demand outlook for 2030 set forth in the July 2015 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) decision, and the design of scenarios that focus on projections through 2050.

Based on the principle of 3E+S (energy security, economic efficiency, environmental protection and safety), Japan continues to strictly adhere to its previous basic policies of promoting comprehensive energy savings, increasing renewable energy, maximizing the efficiency of thermal power generation and reducing dependency on nuclear power to the extent possible, while aiming for steady realization of the 2030 energy mix by identifying and strengthening the implementation of measures for each energy source.

With regard to the long term outlook for 2050, an accurate forecast is also difficult owing to the uncertainty of technological innovation and the unpredictability of future conditions. For this reason, it is appropriate to take an approach using parallel scenarios under which ambitious targets are set, but priorities are always determined based on the latest information.

Nuclear power output per unit of fuel is extremely large, producing power for several years using a domestic fuel stockpile. Nuclear power remains an important baseload power source as a low carbon and quasi-domestic energy source, contributing to the stability of the energy supply–demand structure in the long term, on the major premise that its safety is ensured on the grounds of: (i) more stable energy supply and efficiency; (ii) low and stable operational costs; and (iii) zero greenhouse gas emissions during operation.

Dependency on nuclear power generation will be reduced to the extent possible, with increased use of renewable energy and through energy savings and improvements in the efficiency of thermal power generation. Towards 2050, nuclear power is an option for decarbonization, though there is some movement towards eliminating nuclear power. Global initiatives are ongoing to further enhance its safety, economics and mobility in response to changes in energy needs.

In Japan, it is essential first and foremost to restore public trust through initiatives such as reducing the risk of accidents through further safety enhancements and the handling of back end issues such as decommissioning reactors and processing and disposal of waste. To this end, the Government will strengthen human resources, technology and the foundations of the industry, in addition to pursuing reactor technologies with superior safety, economics and mobility, and finally the development of technology aimed at the resolution of potential back end problems. An earnest nuclear posture and initiatives with a strong sense of responsibility which stems from the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station as the starting point are important and will be key to securing public trust in the nuclear power sector.

1.1.2. Estimated available energy

Table 1 shows estimated energy reserves in Japan.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Estimated available energy sources
 Fossil fuels Nuclear  Renewables
Solid Liquid** Gas** Uranium*** Hydro Other
renewable
Total amount in specific units* 9.26 71.30 3.25 23.46 49.58 12.55
Total amount in exajoule (EJ)

* Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m3; uranium: thousand tonnes; hydro, renewable: GW.

Data at the end of 2018.

** Conversion rate from oil (kL) to oil (t): 0.855; from LNG (t) to LNG (m3): 1 220.

*** Uranium excludes depleted uranium.

—: data not available.

Sources: Uranium — Nuclear Regulation Authority.

Others — Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.

1.1.3. Energy statistics

In the past, Japan imported a large amount of inexpensive crude oil. In 1973, oil accounted for 75.5% of its total energy consumption. However, Japan then sustained surging oil prices amid the first oil crisis in 1973. With growing fears of oil supply cuts, Japan reduced its reliance on oil as a primary energy source and instead introduced more nuclear power, natural gas and coal in order to stabilize the country’s domestic energy supply and production.

As a result, Japan’s dependence on oil declined from 75.5% in 1973 to 40.3% in 2010. Meanwhile, the country accelerated the diversification of energy sources to include coal (22.7%), natural gas (18.2%) and nuclear power (11.2%). However, with the shutdown of nuclear power plants after the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, consumption of fossil fuel as an alternative to nuclear power increased greatly, and the percentage of oil in total energy consumption increased to 44.5% in 2012, with nuclear power representing 0.7%. The electricity generation of nuclear power dropped to zero in 2014 owing to the shutdown of all nuclear power plants, but has gradually increased since 2015 with the restart of some nuclear power plant units. The electricity generated from oil decreased in 2017, owing to the expansion of renewable energy and the restart of nuclear power plants; the ratio of oil decreased for five consecutive years, reaching 39.0%, the lowest level since 1965 (see Table 2).

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

(EJ) Average annual growth rate (%)
2000 2010 2015 2018* 2000 to 2018*
Energy consumption**        
- Total
22.71

22.00

20.02

19.73

-0.78
- Solids***
4.20

5.00

5.15

4.95

0.92
- Liquids***
11.16

8.86

8.14

7.41

-2.25
- Gases
3.06

3.99

4.66

4.51

2.18
- Nuclear****
2.86

2.46

0.08

0.55

-8.72
- Hydro****
0.75

0.72

0.73

0.69

-0.43
- Other
renewables****

0.68

0.97

1.27

1.61

4.89
Energy production        
- Total
4.48

4.34

2.20

2.94

-2.32
- Solids***
0.07

0.03

0.03

0.02

-5.66
- Liquids***
0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

-2.48
- Gases
0.11

0.15

0.11

0.10

-0.08
- Nuclear****
2.86

2.46

0.08

0.55

-8.72
- Hydro****
0.75

0.72

0.73

0.69

-0.43
- Other
renewables****

0.68

0.95

1.23

1.55

4.70
Net import (Import-Export)        
- Total
18.46

17.73

17.81

16.81

-0.52
Stock change
-0.24

-0.07

0.01

-0.02

-

* Latest available data (fiscal year).

** Energy consumption = Energy production + Net import (Import-Export) ± Stock change.

*** Solid fuels include coal, anthracite and lignite. Liquid fuels include crude oil, kerosene, gasoline, light oil and heavy oil, as well as LNG and refinery gas.

**** Conversion from electricity production to primary energy production is based on net efficiency of

thermal power generation by general electricity utilities.

Source: “General Energy Statistics”, Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.

1.2. THE ELECTRICITY SYSTEM

1.2.1. Electricity policy and decision making process

The Electricity and Gas Industry Committee, comprising non-governmental professionals and experts, provides advice and recommendations to METI on a regular basis with regard to the basic national policies necessary to achieve stable supplies of power, promote demand oriented energy saving measures, promote load leveling and further develop electric power. Based on this advice, METI and related ministries and agencies confer regularly with individual power companies to review up-to-date demand and supply performance and evaluate the power supply programme for the future.

1.2.2. Structure of the electric power sector

The electricity market is divided into nine geographical zones, with an electric power company in each zone. The private enterprises specialize only in electric utility operations and are the main power suppliers in each zone. In addition to these companies, there is also the Okinawa Electric Power Company, which is a smaller electric utility company operating in Okinawa Prefecture, which is comprised of many small islands. These power companies operate their own facilities for power generation, transmission and distribution as integrated business operations.

There are two other large electricity providers in Japan. The Electric Power Development Company operates thermal and hydroelectric power stations, while the Japan Atomic Power Company oversees nuclear power stations. These two private enterprises produce electric power and act as wholesalers to the nine electric power companies. However, their total installed capacity is relatively small compared to that of the other power companies mentioned above.

In April 2013, the Cabinet carried out a bold measure under the Policy on Electricity System Reform by expanding cross-regional system operation and full retail competition, which in turn ensures the neutrality of power transmission and distribution sectors through legal unbundling.

Under the proposed reform, firstly, the Organization for Cross-regional Coordination of Transmission Operators (OCCTO) was established in April 2015. Later, in September 2015, the Electricity and Gas Market Surveillance Commission (EGC) was established under METI to strengthen the monitoring of the electricity, gas and heat power trading market. After those two new institutions were established, the electricity retail market was fully liberalized in April 2016. The legal unbundling of the transmission and distribution sectors was completed in April 2020, following that of TEPCO in 2016.

1.2.3. Main indicators

Table 3 contains information on electricity installed capacity, production and consumption, and Table 4 contains energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. INSTALLED CAPACITY, ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

Average annual growth rate (%)
1980 1990 2000 2010 2015 2018* 2000 to 2018*
Capacity of electrical plants (GWe) G              
- Thermal 80.77 104.09 138.16 135.07 143.04 171.47 1.28
- Nuclear 15.51 31.48 45.08 48.96 44.26 38.04 -0.99
- Hydro 28.54 36.32 44.85 43.85 45.79 49.58 0.59
- Wind 0.00 0.09 0.05 3.17
- Geothermal 0.13 0.24 0.50 0.50 0.47 0.46 -0.49
- Other renewable 0.01 0.09 8.92
- Total 124.95 172.12 228.60 228.48 231.48 271.69 1.02
Electricity production (TWh) G
- Thermal 317.7 446.6 526.9 553.3 675.7 726.2 1.91
- Nuclear 82.0 201.4 321.3 288.2 9.4 62.1 -9.22
- Hydro 84.5 88.1 89.3 74.2 74.9 85.0 -0.29
- Wind 0.0 0.1 0.1 5.9
- Geothermal 0.9 1.5 3.1 2.5 2.4 2.1 -2.26
- Other renewable 0.0 0.1 10.8
- Total** 485.5 737.6 940.7 918.2 762.4 892.2 -0.31
Total electricity consumption (TWh)*** 575.1
848.4

1073.9
1 141.0 1 039.8 1050.5 -0.02

* Latest available data (fiscal year).

** Total electricity production is based on “Survey of Electric Power Statistics”, which does not include electricity production by autoproducers. Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

*** Total electricity consumption is based on the “General Energy Statistics”, which includes electricity own-use by autoproducers.

—: data not available.

Source: Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

1980 1990 2000 2010 2015
2018*
Energy consumption per capita (GJ/capita)** 136 160 180 173 156
155
Electricity consumption per capita (kWh/capita) 4915 6889
8504
8990 8120
8243
Electricity production/Energy production (%) 83.4 85.9 84.3 96.4 172.1
129.5
Nuclear/Total electricity (%)*** 16.9 27.3 34.2 31.4 1.2 7.0
Ratio of external dependency (%)***** 84.4 81.7 80.3 80.3 89.0
85.1

* Latest available data (fiscal year).

** Energy consumption = Energy production + Net import (Import-Export) ± Stock change.

*** Nuclear/Total electricity is based on the figures of Electricity Production in Table 3.

**** Ratio of external dependency = (Energy consumption-Energy production)/Energy consumption.

Sources: “General Energy Statistics”, Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.

(The statistics includes electricity own use or production by autoproducers)

“Basic Resident Register,” Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications.

2. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

2.1.1. Overview

Enactment of the Atomic Energy Basic Law in 1955 promoted atomic energy development and utilization for peaceful objectives in compliance with the three basic principles of democratic management, voluntary action and open information. In 1956, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was established as an advisory board for the Prime Minister on matters regarding the promotion of atomic energy development and utilization.

The Long-Lerm Programme for Research, Development, and Utilization of Nuclear Energy was formulated in 1956. The plan was revised and updated every five years between 1956 and 2000.

The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI, later METI) was reorganized in 1966 to accommodate its increasing workload. This change provided additional rules and regulations for introducing commercial light water reactors (LWRs) in Japan after 1966.

In 1974, three basic laws to promote electric power development were enacted: the Act on the Development of Areas Adjacent to Electric Power Generating Facilities; the Act on Tax for Promotion of Electric Power Development; and the Act on Special Accounts for Electric Power Promotion. These laws also advanced the appropriate siting of nuclear power stations.

In 1978, the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) was formed as a separate entity from the AEC. Safety assurance measures were enhanced in 1980 to reflect lessons learned from the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 and, later, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in 1986.

The Vision of Nuclear Power was published by the Nuclear Energy Subcommittee, one of advisory bodies for the MITI Minister, in 1986. It described long term prospects for energy availability and electric power requirements through 2030, while proposing to establish a programme for enhancing safety called Safety 21, which further reinforced safety assurance measures. In 1990, Japan revised its supply targets to include alternative energy sources and mitigate its growing demand for oil alongside global greenhouse contributions.

The Government carried out administrative reforms in January 2001. In that year, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) was formed as a special institution within the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and METI with jurisdiction over matters of nuclear and industrial safety. In addition, the AEC and NSC, under the Cabinet Office, provided independent and appropriate high level direction to other ministries and agencies.

On 11 March 2011, the earthquake off the Pacific coast of the Tohoku region and subsequent tsunami damaged TEPCO’s Fukushima Daiichi and Daini Nuclear Power Stations. In particular, at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, an extremely serious accident measuring Level 7 on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) occurred. A report by the National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission noted the following [1]:

“The regulators did not monitor or supervise nuclear safety. The lack of expertise resulted in ‘regulatory capture’ and the postponement of the implementation of relevant regulations. They avoided their direct responsibilities by letting operators apply regulations on a voluntary basis.”

Based on lessons learned from the accident, the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) was established in September 2012 as an external organ of the Ministry of the Environment (MOE). This organ separated the functions of promotion and regulation of nuclear energy, with the aim to avoid potential problems caused by having the same government organization act both as a regulatory authority and a promoter of nuclear energy. It was also established as an authority under Article 3(1) so that the chairman and the commissioners can exercise an independent, neutral and fair role, based on their own expertise. Additionally, in order to eliminate the harmful effects of a vertically divided administration, the NRA is to integrally govern regulations on nuclear energy, nuclear security, safeguards based on international commitments, radiation monitoring and regulations on the use of radioisotopes, which previously had been governed by other administrative organs. On 1 March 2014, the Incorporated Administrative Agency, the Japan Nuclear Energy Safety Organization and all of its activities were integrated into the NRA. Implementation of off-site emergency preparedness and response was moved to the newly established Nuclear Disaster Management Bureau of the Cabinet Office in October 2014.

In accordance with the Amended Act to reform the former AEC, the Japan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) was re-established in 2014. It published the Basic Policy for Nuclear Energy, intended to serve as a compass for the direction of long term governmental policy on future nuclear energy use, which was authorized by the Cabinet in July 2017.

2.1.2. Current organizational structure

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) was created through a merger of the former Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture and the Science and Technology Agency (STA). MEXT is responsible for administering nuclear energy for science and technology. Its key roles are nuclear research and development (R&D) (including the nuclear fuel cycle, fast breeder reactors (FBRs) and accelerators), human resources in the field of nuclear energy and nuclear liability. It is also responsible for supervising the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA).

METI is in charge of those areas in which it had been involved previously under the MITI title, or acquired from the STA, with topical areas relating to nuclear power related issues and nuclear fuel cycle activities (refining, enrichment, fabrication, reprocessing and waste disposal), also shared through its affiliated agency ANRE.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) is responsible for international nuclear cooperation, including matters related to conclusion of international agreements.

MOE has handled off-site environmental remediation since the TEPCO Fukushima Daiichi accident following the earthquake and tsunami in 2011.The decontamination work, for example, was completed as planned in 2018 except for the so-called “Difficult-Return-Zones.” MOE is now focused on environmental regeneration in Fukushima, in cooperation with local residents. MOE also shares the lessons learned and updated information with international communities to eliminate misconceptions about Fukushima.

The NRA is Japan’s nuclear regulatory organization. The NRA Secretariat deals with related administrative matters. The NRA was established as an external bureau of MOE. The Chairman and Commissioners of the NRA are appointed by the Prime Minister, upon consent of the Diet, also in accordance with the provisions of the Act for Establishment of the Nuclear Regulation Authority, which aims for an independent, fair and neutral exercise of authority.

The Nuclear Disaster Management Bureau of the Cabinet Office facilitates the preparedness planning of local governments, supports the implementation of such plans, and conducts drills and exercises.

The JAEC, set in the Office of Atomic Energy Policy of the Cabinet Office, provides independent, long term direction on nuclear energy use that encompasses relevant government ministries and agencies. The Office of Atomic Energy Policy functions as the secretariat of JAEC (see Fig. 1 for the general structure of the nuclear energy sector).

FIG. 1. Organizational structure of Japan’s nuclear energy sector. ANRE: Agency of Natural Resources and Energy; CAO: Cabinet Office; JAEA: Japan Atomic Energy Agency; JAEC: Japan Atomic Energy Commission; METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry; MEXT: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology; MOE: Ministry of the Environment; MOFA: Ministry of Foreign Affairs; NRA: Nuclear Regulation Authority.

2.2. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS: OVERVIEW

2.2.1. Status and performance of nuclear power plants

The status and performance of nuclear power plants in Japan is presented in Table 5. In 2019, the total nuclear electricity production (net) was 65 636.14 GW(th). Owing to the Fukushima Daiichi accident, it was decided to decommission Fukushima Units 1–4 on 19 April 2012 and Units 5 and 6 on 31 January 2014.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor Unit Type Net
Capacity
[MW(e)]
Status Operator Reactor
Supplier
Construction
Date
First
Criticality
Date
First Grid
Date
Commercial
Date
Shutdown
Date
UCF
for
2019
GENKAI-3 PWR 1127 Operational KYUSHU MHI 1988-06-01 1993-05-28 1993-06-15 1994-03-18 80.1
GENKAI-4 PWR 1127 Operational KYUSHU MHI 1992-07-15 1996-10-23 1996-11-12 1997-07-25 80.4
HAMAOKA-3 BWR 1056 Operational CHUBU TOSHIBA 1983-04-18 1986-11-21 1987-01-20 1987-08-28 0.0
HAMAOKA-4 BWR 1092 Operational CHUBU TOSHIBA 1989-10-13 1992-12-02 1993-01-27 1993-09-03 0.0
HAMAOKA-5 BWR 1325 Operational CHUBU TOSHIBA 2000-07-12 2004-03-23 2004-04-30 2005-01-18 0.0
HIGASHI DORI-1 (TOHOKU) BWR 1067 Operational TOHOKU TOSHIBA 2000-11-07 2005-01-24 2005-03-09 2005-12-08 0.0
IKATA-3 PWR 846 Operational SHIKOKU MHI 1990-10-01 1994-02-23 1994-03-29 1994-12-15 98.3
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-1 BWR 1067 Operational TEPCO TOSHIBA 1980-06-05 1984-12-12 1985-02-13 1985-09-18 0.0
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-2 BWR 1067 Operational TEPCO TOSHIBA 1985-11-18 1989-11-30 1990-02-08 1990-09-28 0.0
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-3 BWR 1067 Operational TEPCO TOSHIBA 1989-03-07 1992-10-19 1992-12-08 1993-08-11 0.0
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-4 BWR 1067 Operational TEPCO HITACHI 1990-03-05 1993-11-01 1993-12-21 1994-08-11 0.0
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-5 BWR 1067 Operational TEPCO HITACHI 1985-06-20 1989-07-20 1989-09-12 1990-04-10 0.0
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-6 BWR 1315 Operational TEPCO TOSHIBA 1992-11-03 1995-12-18 1996-01-29 1996-11-07 0.0
KASHIWAZAKI KARIWA-7 BWR 1315 Operational TEPCO HITACHI 1993-07-01 1996-11-01 1996-12-17 1997-07-02 0.0
MIHAMA-3 PWR 780 Operational KEPCO MHI 1972-08-07 1976-01-28 1976-02-19 1976-12-01 0.0
OHI-3 PWR 1127 Operational KEPCO MHI 1987-10-03 1991-05-17 1991-06-07 1991-12-18 78.1
OHI-4 PWR 1127 Operational KEPCO MHI 1988-06-13 1992-05-28 1992-06-19 1993-02-02 79.6
ONAGAWA-2 BWR 796 Operational TOHOKU TOSHIBA 1991-04-12 1994-11-02 1994-12-23 1995-07-28 0.0
ONAGAWA-3 BWR 796 Operational TOHOKU TOSHIBA 1998-01-23 2001-04-26 2001-05-30 2002-01-30 0.0
SENDAI-1 PWR 846 Operational KYUSHU MHI 1979-12-15 1983-08-25 1983-09-16 1984-07-04 80.1
SENDAI-2 PWR 846 Operational KYUSHU MHI 1981-10-12 1985-03-18 1985-04-05 1985-11-28 80.4
SHIKA-1 BWR 505 Operational HOKURIKU HITACHI 1989-07-01 1992-11-20 1993-01-12 1993-07-30 0.0
SHIKA-2 BWR 1108 Operational HOKURIKU HITACHI 2001-08-20 2005-05-26 2005-07-04 2006-03-15 0.0
SHIMANE-2 BWR 789 Operational CHUGOKU HITACHI 1985-02-02 1988-05-25 1988-07-11 1989-02-10 0.0
TAKAHAMA-1 PWR 780 Operational KEPCO WH/MHI 1970-04-25 1974-03-14 1974-03-27 1974-11-14 0.0
TAKAHAMA-2 PWR 780 Operational KEPCO MHI 1971-03-09 1974-12-20 1975-01-17 1975-11-14 0.0
TAKAHAMA-3 PWR 830 Operational KEPCO MHI 1980-12-12 1984-04-17 1984-05-09 1985-01-17 100.0
TAKAHAMA-4 PWR 830 Operational KEPCO MHI 1981-03-19 1984-10-11 1984-11-01 1985-06-05 71.3
TOKAI-2 BWR 1060 Operational JAPCO GE 1973-10-03 1978-01-18 1978-03-13 1978-11-28 0.0
TOMARI-1 PWR 550 Operational HEPCO MHI 1985-04-18 1988-11-16 1988-12-06 1989-06-22 0.0
TOMARI-2 PWR 550 Operational HEPCO MHI 1985-06-13 1990-07-25 1990-08-27 1991-04-12 0.0
TOMARI-3 PWR 866 Operational HEPCO MHI 2004-11-18 2009-03-03 2009-03-20 2009-12-22 0.0
TSURUGA-2 PWR 1108 Operational JAPCO MHI 1982-11-06 1986-05-28 1986-06-19 1987-02-17 0.0
OHMA BWR 1328 Under Construction EPDC H/G 2010-05-07
SHIMANE-3 BWR 1325 Under Construction CHUGOKU HITACHI 2007-10-12
FUGEN ATR HWLWR 148 Permanent Shutdown JAEA HITACHI 1972-05-10 1978-03-20 1978-07-29 1979-03-20 2003-03-29
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-1 BWR 439 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO GE/GETSC 1967-07-25 1970-10-10 1970-11-17 1971-03-26 2011-05-19
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-2 BWR 760 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO GE/T 1969-06-09 1973-05-10 1973-12-24 1974-07-18 2011-05-19
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-3 BWR 760 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO TOSHIBA 1970-12-28 1974-09-06 1974-10-26 1976-03-27 2011-05-19
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-4 BWR 760 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO HITACHI 1973-02-12 1978-01-28 1978-02-24 1978-10-12 2011-05-19
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-5 BWR 760 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO TOSHIBA 1972-05-22 1977-08-26 1977-09-22 1978-04-18 2013-12-17
FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI-6 BWR 1067 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO GE/T 1973-10-26 1979-03-09 1979-05-04 1979-10-24 2013-12-17
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-1 BWR 1067 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO TOSHIBA 1976-03-16 1981-06-17 1981-07-31 1982-04-20 2019-09-30 0.0
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-2 BWR 1067 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO HITACHI 1979-05-25 1983-04-26 1983-06-23 1984-02-03 2019-09-30 0.0
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-3 BWR 1067 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO TOSHIBA 1981-03-23 1984-10-18 1984-12-14 1985-06-21 2019-09-30 0.0
FUKUSHIMA-DAINI-4 BWR 1067 Permanent Shutdown TEPCO HITACHI 1981-05-28 1986-10-24 1986-12-17 1987-08-25 2019-09-30 0.0
GENKAI-1 PWR 529 Permanent Shutdown KYUSHU MHI 1971-09-15 1975-01-28 1975-02-14 1975-10-15 2015-04-27
GENKAI-2 PWR 529 Permanent Shutdown KYUSHU MHI 1977-02-01 1980-05-21 1980-06-03 1981-03-30 2019-04-09 0.0
HAMAOKA-1 BWR 515 Permanent Shutdown CHUBU TOSHIBA 1971-06-10 1974-06-20 1974-08-13 1976-03-17 2009-01-30
HAMAOKA-2 BWR 806 Permanent Shutdown CHUBU TOSHIBA 1974-06-14 1978-03-28 1978-05-04 1978-11-29 2009-01-30
IKATA-1 PWR 538 Permanent Shutdown SHIKOKU MHI 1973-09-01 1977-01-29 1977-02-17 1977-09-30 2016-05-10
IKATA-2 PWR 538 Permanent Shutdown SHIKOKU MHI 1978-08-01 1981-07-31 1981-08-19 1982-03-19 2018-05-23
JPDR BWR 12 Permanent Shutdown JAEA GE 1960-12-01 1963-08-22 1963-10-26 1965-03-15 1976-03-18
MIHAMA-1 PWR 320 Permanent Shutdown KEPCO WH 1967-02-01 1970-07-29 1970-08-08 1970-11-28 2015-04-27
MIHAMA-2 PWR 470 Permanent Shutdown KEPCO MHI 1968-05-29 1972-04-10 1972-04-21 1972-07-25 2015-04-27
MONJU FBR 246 Permanent Shutdown JAEA T/H/F/M 1986-05-10 1994-04-05 1995-08-29 2017-12-05
OHI-1 PWR 1120 Permanent Shutdown KEPCO WH 1972-10-26 1977-12-02 1977-12-23 1979-03-27 2018-03-01
OHI-2 PWR 1120 Permanent Shutdown KEPCO WH 1972-12-08 1978-09-14 1978-10-11 1979-12-05 2018-03-01
ONAGAWA-1 BWR 498 Permanent Shutdown TOHOKU TOSHIBA 1980-07-08 1983-10-18 1983-11-18 1984-06-01 2018-12-21
SHIMANE-1 BWR 439 Permanent Shutdown CHUGOKU HITACHI 1970-07-02 1973-06-01 1973-12-02 1974-03-29 2015-04-30
TOKAI-1 GCR 137 Permanent Shutdown JAPCO GEC 1961-03-01 1965-05-04 1965-11-10 1966-07-25 1998-03-31
TSURUGA-1 BWR 340 Permanent Shutdown JAPCO GE 1966-11-24 1969-10-03 1969-11-16 1970-03-14 2015-04-27
Data source: IAEA - Power Reactor Information System (PRIS).
Note: Table is completely generated from PRIS data to reflect the latest available information and may be more up to date than the text of the report.

2.2.2. Plant upgrading, plant life management and license renewals

The operational period for a nuclear power reactor has a specific term of 40 years, as the reactor is first required to pass the “pre-service inspection” set forth in Art. 43-3-11(1) of the Reactor Regulation Act (Art. 43-3-32(1) of the Reactor Regulation Act).

A period of extended operation can be authorized for up to 20 years. Following this, a subsequent period of extended operation is not possible.

2.2.3. Permanent shutdown and decommissioning process

Twenty-four reactors in total have been shut down permanently and are to be decommissioned in Japan, including Fukushima Daiichi Units 1–6.

Decommissioning work has already begun on 13 reactors (Tokai, Hamaoka Units 1 and 2, Tsuruga Unit 1, Shimane Unit 1, Genakai Unit 1, Mihama Units 1 and 2, Ikata Unit 1, Ohi Units 1 and 2, Genkai Unit 2, and Onagawa Unit 1).

The decommissioning plan for Ikata Unit 2 has been submitted to NRA and is under review as of March 2020.

In July 2019, a decision was made to decommission Fukushima Daini Units 1–4.

2.3. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER SECTOR

2.3.1. Nuclear power development strategy

On the premise that safety comes before everything else and that every possible effort is made to address the people’s concerns, final determination as to whether nuclear power plants meet the new regulatory requirements are left to the NRA. In the case that the NRA verifies conformity of nuclear power plants with the new regulatory requirements, which are among the most stringent in the world, the Government will act in accordance with the NRA’s determinations and proceed with the restart of select nuclear power plants. In these cases, the Government will make its best effort to obtain the understanding and cooperation of the host municipalities and other relevant parties.

Dependency on nuclear power generation will be lowered to the extent possible by saving energy and introducing renewable energy, as well as improving the efficiency of thermal power generation. Under this policy, the Government will steadily advance necessary actions with the aim of realizing an appropriate energy balance in line with the long term energy supply and demand outlook in 2030. This energy supply and demand mix was formulated by carefully examining the amount of electricity that needs to be secured by nuclear power generation, accounting for Japan’s energy constraints and goals of stable energy supply, cost reduction, global warming countermeasures and maintaining the technologies and human resources necessary to secure safety (the Government set a target of reducing its dependency on nuclear power to 20–22% by 2030).

2.3.2. Project management

In Japan, private electric power suppliers undertake construction of nuclear energy plants and serve as the owners and operators of the nuclear energy plant units. Electric power suppliers manage entire construction projects, with construction work and manufacturing of equipment and facilities done by the companies that constructed the plants.

2.3.3. Project funding

The financial resources for constructing nuclear power plants are procured by electric power suppliers, which are the implementing entities of the construction projects. The methods of procuring funds are comparatively flexible, with sources including banking institutions, government financial institutions, stock markets and internal reserves. The Reactor Regulation Act requires companies overseeing construction of nuclear facilities to have adequate financial resources as one criterion for permission. The NRA verifies whether applicants have the appropriate financial resources.

2.3.4. Electric grid development

Most electric power suppliers that generate nuclear power in Japan have their own electric distribution networks, and these cover the whole country. Under the power generation and distribution management system of individual electric power suppliers, distribution networks ensure stable distribution by appropriately adjusting the amount of power generated in accordance with rapidly changing demand.

Electricity system reforms have ensured the neutrality of power transmission and distribution sectors through legal unbundling.

2.3.5. Sites

As a technical requirement, electric power suppliers must choose locations for nuclear power plants that are less vulnerable to natural disasters and with stable ground or seismic conditions. In the procedures for obtaining permission to construct and install reactors, site conditions are subject to safety reviews.

2.3.6. Public awareness

The Government will enhance public relations activities based on scientific evidence and established facts with regard to such matters as risks related to nuclear energy and impacts of accidents, regulatory requirements, safety measures to be taken after accidents, disaster management measures following severe accidents (assuming a notable event has taken place), problems related to spent fuel, economic efficiency of nuclear energy and international trends.

Carefully planned public hearings and public relations activities will be enhanced, not only in regions with nuclear power plants, but also in electricity consuming regions that have until now received the benefits of power supply Sincere dialogues with various stakeholders and reinforcing the sharing of information will be pursued. In addition, the Government will enhance education on nuclear power to improve the public’s understanding of nuclear power across generations.

2.4. ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION OF NPPs

There are three reactor manufacturers in Japan: (i) Toshiba; (ii) Hitachi, which maintains a strategic global alliance with General Electric, with ability to construct and operate boiling water reactors (BWRs); and (iii) Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, which can construct and operate pressurized water reactors (PWRs).

Many companies are capable of supplying equipment and services to the nuclear power industry in Japan. These range from suppliers of major items of equipment and machinery to conventional equipment or engineering services, and also include firms related to the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear fuel recycling.

2.5. ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN OPERATION OF NPPs

Nine electric power companies operate commercial LWRs, and another company is a producer and wholesaler of electricity generated from nuclear power in Japan.

With regard to the training of nuclear power plant operators in Japan, both BWR and PWR groups manage their own training centres. These entities are jointly financed, built and used by member companies in each group, comprising electric power companies and contracted engineering firms. In addition, each electric power company has its own training facility. Engineering qualification tests for operator certification are conducted at training centres that are jointly operated by member companies.

Toshiba, Hitachi and Mitsubishi are the suppliers of maintenance services. The electric power companies initiate contracts with these maintenance service companies. In exchange, contractors assume responsibility for repair and maintenance services for their nuclear power plants.

2.6. ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN DECOMMISSIONING OF NPPs

In Japan, the fundamental policy is to dismantle and remove decommissioned nuclear power generation facilities that have completed their service lives, while ensuring complete safety during the process. The decommissioning process is mainly divided into four phases, and each utility has formulated a plan to complete decommissioning over the course of 30 years.

The cost of decommissioning a reactor in Japan is estimated to be several tens of billions of yen.

2.7. FUEL CYCLE, INCLUDING WASTE MANAGEMENT

Fuel cycle activities in Japan include the following activities (which are conducted by, or are under the responsibility of, the enterprises/organizations indicated in brackets):

Uranium enrichment (Japan Nuclear Fuel Ltd.);

  • Reconversion (Mitsubishi Nuclear Fuel);

  • Uranium fuel fabrication (Global Nuclear Fuel Japan, Nuclear Fuel Industries, Mitsubishi Nuclear Fuel);

  • Storage of spent fuel (Nuclear reactor operators (utilities), Japan Nuclear Fuel Ltd., Recyclable Fuel Storage Company);

  • Reprocessing and mixed oxide (MOX) fabrication (Japan Nuclear Fuel Ltd., Nuclear Reprocessing Organization of Japan);

  • Final disposal of high level radioactive waste (Nuclear Waste Management Organization of Japan).

2.8. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

2.8.1. R&D organizations

Responsibilities of the Government for R&D are shared between the MEXT and METI. MEXT is responsible for planning and administering nuclear energy for science and technology. MEXT also plays a key role in many areas of nuclear R&D, including the nuclear fuel cycle, FBRs and accelerators. Established in 2001, MEXT supervises the work of the JAEA, established in 2005. Additionally, the ANRE carries out various activities, which include undertaking studies on improving reactor designs of LWRs, approving design modifications proposed by utilities and decommissioning activities.

2.8.2. Development of advanced nuclear power technologies

In addition to LWRs for power production, Japan is actively developing other types of reactors, such as high temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGRs) and FBRs.

HTGRs are expected to be utilized in various industries, including hydrogen production. The principal HTGR R&D programme uses the JAEA (formerly JAERI) High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR), at Oarai, Ibaraki Prefecture. The HTTR is a helium gas cooled reactor with 30 MW(th) capacity. This reactor has been used to establish and upgrade technologies for advanced HTGRs and to demonstrate the effectiveness of selected high temperature heat utilization systems. The initial criticality of the HTTR was achieved in November 1998. The HTTR attained full power operation of 30 MW(th) and a gas temperature of 950°C at the reactor outlet in April 2004. A 50 day long term high temperature operation period at 950°C demonstrated that the HTTR can supply high temperature heat for planned heat utilization systems, which followed in 2010. The loss of forced cooling test was accomplished at 9 MW(th) in 2010 under the framework of the loss of forced coolant international joint research project of the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD/NEA). The HTTR has not operated since the Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011 because all nuclear reactors in Japan were required to meet the new regulatory standards. The JAEA submitted the application for the HTTR to the NRA, stating that it conforms to the new regulation standard in November 2014. The review by the NRA is ongoing.

The JAEA is also working on R&D for a hydrogen production system using a thermochemical water splitting iodine–sulphur process. In January 2019, the JAEA achieved 150 hours of continuous hydrogen production by using a thermochemical iodine–sulphur process. HTGR development is promoted in the Strategic Energy Plan, adopted by the Cabinet in 2014. On the basis of the Strategic Energy Plan, MEXT established a task force in the Nuclear Science Committee to develop future R&D plans for HTGRs in May 2014, and drafted an interim report in September 2014. On the basis of the recommendation of the task force report, an industry–academic–government forum for HTGRs in Japan was established to discuss future HTGR plans, and six meetings have been held to date (April 2015, September 2015, April 2016, June 2016, June 2017 and August 2018) with discussions still underway. The forum established a working group to discuss the strategy to deploy the Japanese HTGR technology overseas. Two meetings of the working group were held in August 2017. Under the new Strategic Energy Plan approved by the Cabinet in 2018, the Government is facilitating R&D of technologies that improve nuclear safety, such as HTGR.

The JAEA is conducting R&D on FBRs and nuclear fuel reprocessing technology to establish a more economical nuclear fuel cycle. The experimental fast reactor (Joyo) was in operation from 1982 to 2000 using the MK-II core (100 MW(th)). Thereafter, the core and the cooling system were modified and attained initial criticality as the MK-III core (140 MW(th)) in July 2003. Irradiation tests for the self-actuated shutdown system, minor actinide–mixed oxide fuel and oxide dispersion strengthened steel were then conducted on the MK-III core. In 2007, an irradiation rig (MARICO-2) was broken and bent onto an in-vessel storage rack. Restoration work, including retrieving MARICO-2 and exchanging the upper core structure, was completed in 2015. The JAEA submitted an application for the restart of Joyo in compliance with the new regulatory requirements in March 2017. Under the direction of the NRA, the JAEA submitted an amendment of the application in October 2018. The review by the NRA is in progress.

The prototype FBR Monju (liquid metal cooled reactor) with a capacity of 280 MW reached initial criticality in April 1994 and was connected to the grid in August 1995. Reactor operation was interrupted in December 1995 due to a sodium leak in the non-radioactive secondary cooling system. After carrying out a two-year investigation into the cause, including a comprehensive safety review and the necessary licensing procedure, the JAEA completed a series of modifications in order to reinforce countermeasures against potential sodium leak accidents. Monju was restarted in May 2010 and the core confirmation test was carried out until July 2010. But after the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011, NRA issued an order on measures for plant safety to suspend preparations for the pre-operational tests in the system startup tests due to inadequate maintenance management in May 2013. The JAEA completely revised the plant maintenance management system and the quality assurance system, and their results were reported to the NRA in August 2016. After that, the JAEA implemented the inspection of Monju components and systems on the basis of the new plant maintenance programme. Given this situation, the Inter-Ministerial Council for Nuclear Power met in September 2016, resulting in the decision that “A fundamental review of Monju taking decommissioning into consideration is to be conducted”. Following that decision, the Council on Fast Reactor Development met from October through December 2016 to discuss the development policy on fast reactors in Japan. In consideration of the discussion of the Council on Fast Reactor Development, the Government ordered the permanent shutdown of Monju on 21 December 2016. Following the decision, the JAEA submitted the decommissioning plan for Monju to the NRA on 6 December 2017, which was approved on 28 March 2018 by the NRA. Monju is currently undergoing decommissioning.

The knowledge and experience obtained from the design, construction and R&D on Monju are being catalogued for use in future fast reactors. The Monju decommissioning plan is also being developed to establish the decommissioning technology for fast reactors, including sodium handling techniques. Through these R&D activities, the Monju site will continue to be utilized as a key site for nuclear research and human resource development.

With regard to the development of future fast reactors in Japan, a practical level strategic working group was established to draw up a strategic roadmap for fast reactor development. The roadmap specifies the development work over the next ten years in Japan, a plan that was completed at the end of 2018. The roadmap states the significance of fast reactor development, and stipulates the target technology, schedule and development system. As for the target technology, Japan will pursue various fast reactor technologies that can be applied after 2024. In addition to these development activities, the Feasibility Study on Commercialized Fast Breeder Reactor Cycle Systems undertaken by the JAEA with the cooperation of electricity utilities and other interested parties was carried out from 1999 to 2005, with the objective of presenting an optimal commercialization vision for FBR technologies and an R&D programme towards that goal. Based on the conclusion of the Feasibility Study and check and review by the Government, the Fast Reactor Cycle Technology Development programme was launched in 2006 to advance the fast reactor cycle technology towards commercialization. However, this programme was suspended owing to the Fukushima Daiichi accident on 11 March 2011. Recent activities in relation to fast reactor R&D are now focused mainly on standardization of safety approach and international cooperation with France. In accordance with the Strategic Energy Plan, the JAEA is conducting R&D on reducing waste volume and radiotoxicity and enhancing safety through optimizing the use of international cooperation.

2.8.3. International cooperation and initiatives

Implementation of nuclear safety and R&D through international cooperation is described below.

2.8.3.1. Activities with the IAEA

Japan has contributed to the development and revision of IAEA safety standards by dispatching experts to the Commission on Safety Standards (CSS), the Nuclear Safety Standards Committee (NUSSC), the Waste Safety Standards Committee (WASSC), the Radiation Safety Standards Committee (RASSC), the Transport Safety Standards Committee (TRANSSC) and the Emergency Preparedness and Response Standards Committee (EPReSC). With regard to the Convention on Nuclear Safety and Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, Japan dispatched experts from the draft planning stage. Japan has also participated in review activities after the submission of national reports, promotion of peaceful uses for nuclear energy (safety related cooperation, technical aid to developing countries and R&D). Japan implements safeguards to ensure that all nuclear material is used exclusively for peaceful activities.

Japan actively participates in the following:

  • International Nuclear Safety Group (INSAG);

  • Assessment of Safety Significant Events Team (ASSET);

  • Operational Safety Review Team (OSART);

  • Integrated Regulatory Review Service (IRRS);

  • Site and External Events Design (SEED);

  • Special studies to evaluate the safety of reactors in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

In the area of nuclear energy, Japan has annually made an extrabudgetary contribution to the IAEA for: (i) the Expanded Programme of Public Understanding of Nuclear Energy (EPPUNE); (ii) the development of national infrastructure for nuclear power plants; (iii) the decommissioning of TEPCO’s Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station; and (iv) nuclear knowledge management, as well as other areas.

2.8.3.2. Activities with the OECD/Nuclear Energy Agency

The purpose is to provide useful information to members through technological studies and mutual cooperation on common considerations in the use of nuclear energy in advanced countries. Japan actively participates in the following:

  • Committee on Nuclear Regulatory Activities (CNRA);

  • Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (CSNI);

  • Radioactive Waste Management Committee (RWMC);

  • Committee on Decommissioning of Nuclear Installations and Legacy Management (CDLM);

  • Nuclear Science Committee (NSC);

  • Committee on Radiological Protection and Public Health (CRPPH);

  • Nuclear Law Committee (NLC);

  • Data Bank;

  • Committee for Technical and Economic Studies on Nuclear Energy Development and the Fuel Cycle (NDC).

2.8.3.3. Other multilateral frameworks

Japan has participated in multilateral cooperation frameworks and projects such as the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), the Multinational Design Evaluation Programme (MDEP) and the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC).

Japan has hosted the Forum for Nuclear Cooperation in Asia (FNCA).

2.9. HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

The Government will also take an integrated approach to support development of human resources, institutional infrastructure and other items for countries planning to introduce nuclear power through cooperation with international organizations, such as the IAEA.

2.10. STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT

The Government will be more actively involved in stakeholder communications, in line with practices in other countries, and will take the necessary measures to enhance the sharing of information within regions through careful dialogue with a variety of stakeholders, including local residents.

2.11. EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

In the case of a nuclear emergency, appropriate measures have to be taken promptly to protect individuals, to avoid or to minimize severe deterministic effects and to reduce the risk of stochastic effects of ionizing radiation. In the light of the experience of the Fukushima Daiichi accident, it is necessary to take protective actions such as evacuation even before a release of radioactive materials, in the event that abnormal conditions are detected at facilities. When radioactive materials are released, rapid and appropriate protective actions are required based on the results of radiation monitoring. The approach mentioned below is based upon the framework outlined in the IAEA Safety Standards.

It is necessary to define classes of emergencies based on plant conditions and corresponding hazards, to maintain a clear understanding of conditions at the plant and to share this understanding with the staff on the site, responsible persons in local, regional and national organizations as well as the international community, and to establish a management system for protective actions. Three emergency categories have been defined and emergency action levels (EALs) for commercial reactors have also been determined as the criteria to determine whether the event occurred falls under these categories.

The Emergency categories in Japan are as follows:

Alert: There are no radiation effects, nor any imminent hazards to the public, but caution is required because the circumstances observed might lead to an abnormal event at the nuclear facility. Furthermore, external severe events such as an earthquake or tsunami are included in this category.

  • Site Area Emergency: It is necessary to start preparing for significant protective actions, such as evacuation around a nuclear facility, because a situation has been detected at the facility that may possibly cause radiation effects on residents around the facility. This category also implements the evacuation/sheltering of vulnerable people who require assistance.

  • General Emergency: Competent authorities, including local governments, must conduct prompt protective actions in order to avoid or to minimize severe deterministic effects and to reduce the risk of stochastic effects, because a situation has been observed which could possibly cause radiation effects on residents around the facility.

In addition, emergency planning zones for protective actions have been determined for commercial reactors as follows, considering lessons learned from the Fukushima Daiichi accident:

Precautionary Action Zone (PAZ): An area around a facility for which emergency arrangements were made to take urgent protective actions in the event of a nuclear or radiological emergency to avoid or to minimize severe deterministic effects from the site. Precautionary protective actions within this area are to be taken before a release of radioactive materials or an exposure, on the basis of current conditions at the facility. The range of a PAZ is recommended to be approximately a 5 km radius from the nuclear facility.

  • Urgent Protective Action Planning Zone (UPZ): An area around a facility for which arrangements are made to take urgent protective actions, in the event of a nuclear or radiological emergency, to reduce the risk of stochastic effects from the site. Protective actions within this area are to be taken on the basis of environmental monitoring or, as appropriate, current conditions at the facility. The range of a UPZ is recommended to be approximately a 30 km radius from the nuclear facility.

Furthermore, operational intervention levels (OILs) are defined in order to implement appropriate protective actions after the release of radioactive materials into the environment.

  • OILs are expressed in terms of ground or surface concentrations, or activity concentrations of radionuclides in environmental, food or water samples.

  • OILs are used immediately and directly to determine the appropriate protective actions on the basis of an environmental measurement.

Figures 2 and 3 show the protective actions which are taken during each emergency class and each emergency planning zone.

FIG. 2. Protective actions in an emergency based on emergency action levels (EALs).

FIG. 3. Protective actions in an emergency based on operational intervention levels (OILs).

According to the Basic Act on Disaster Management and Basic Disaster Management Plan, all local governments must establish local disaster management plans. Local governments adjacent to the nuclear power plants must also incorporate nuclear emergency management components into their disaster plans.

The Fukushima Prefectural disaster management plan (regarding nuclear emergency preparedness) had been established before the Fukushima Daiichi accident. However, the 2011 accident revealed various problems, including confusion with regard to the evacuation of residents. The plans did not account for a combined disaster, where nuclear accidents could coincide with natural disasters such as earthquakes. Communication was difficult for residents due to the shortage of communication lines on the disaster management administration wireless equipment and damage to communication devices due to the earthquake and tsunami.

Based on the lessons from the above situation in 2011, the newly arranged Nuclear Emergency Preparedness and Response Guide requires relevant local governments located within approximately 30 km of nuclear power plants to establish evacuation plans for residents with more concrete evacuation measures.

It is important that the content of a local disaster management plan be effective and concrete. The national government is expected to provide support for measures that are beyond the scope of the relevant local governments, once evacuation plans and measures for persons requiring assistance have been established.

Based on the Nuclear Emergency Preparedness Council decision in September 2013, regional nuclear emergency preparedness committees were established in March 2015 as working teams in 16 regions that are home to nuclear power plants in order to resolve potential problems relating to the operation of the nuclear energy programme. It then established working groups under the committees. Working groups consider feasibility of evacuation plans, broader coordination beyond prefectural and municipal borders, and national support for implementation. Furthermore, the national and relevant local governments together handle concrete actions and the development of the local disaster management plans and evacuation plans. Once the local disaster management and evacuation plans have completed concrete preparations, the regional emergency response is compiled and further developed. Each of the 16 regional nuclear emergency preparedness committees confirms that the measures in each regional emergency response are concrete and reasonable, complying with the Nuclear Emergency Preparedness and Response Guide. The Nuclear Disaster Management Bureau of the Cabinet Office reports the results of this confirmation to the Nuclear Emergency Preparedness Council to request its approval. In the confirmed nuclear disaster control measures, PDCA (plan, do, check, action) cycles are introduced and nuclear disaster control measures are thus continually developed. In this cycle, “plan” refers to the support and confirmation of concreteness and development, and the confirmation of nuclear disaster control measures; “do” refers to exercises based on nuclear disaster control measures that are confirmed in regional nuclear emergency preparedness committees; “check” refers to notable points for improvement that emerge from the exercises in the “do” phase; and “action” refers to the further development of the nuclear disaster control measures in said areas based on these points (see Fig. 4). As of March 2020, a total 6 out of 16 regions have confirmed regional emergency responses.

FIG. 4. Formulation of local disaster management plans/evacuation plans.

3. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

3.1.1. Regulatory authority(ies)

The use of nuclear power for energy is under the jurisdiction of METI. With regard to nuclear safety regulations, the NRA was established as an external organ of MOE in September 2012 (see also Section 2.1.1).

3.1.2. Licensing process

The permission process for the development of nuclear power plants in Japan is as follows:

  • Review of the facilities for conformity with regulatory requirements by commissioners and safety review officers of the NRA.

    • Review meetings open to the public.

    • On-site investigations.

  • Opinion hearing on the permission.

    • Requests for official comments by the Atomic Energy Commission and the Minister of METI based on the Reactor Regulation Act.

    • Public comments on the “draft review report” from scientific and technical perspectives.

  • Installation permit/amendment of permit.

    • The NRA finalizes the review results based on the opinions, etc., and makes the decision.

There are three elements for the conformity review: (i) Application for Amendment of Reactor Installation Permit; (ii) Application for Construction Plan Approval; and (iii) Application for Amendment of Operational Safety Programme Approval. Licensees must complete these authorization procedures before using power reactor facilities. Moreover, unless it is confirmed that the power reactor facilities in question conform to the approved construction plan in a pre-service inspection to be conducted after the conformity review, a licensee cannot use the power reactor facility.

3.2. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS IN NUCLEAR POWER

Figure 5 shows the main laws controlling nuclear power plants in Japan as of May 2020.

FIG. 5. Schematic diagram of major nuclear laws in Japan (as of May 2020).

3.2.1. The Atomic Energy Basic Law

With respect to the research, development and use of nuclear energy, the Law prescribes that these activities be performed safely, under democratic management and voluntarily. Information about nuclear energy is to be made available to the public. Nuclear related laws and regulations are enacted based on the spirit of the Act.

3.2.2. Act on the Regulation of Nuclear Source Material, Nuclear Fuel Material and Reactors

Also known as the Reactor Regulation Act, its main purpose is to ensure that the uses of nuclear source material, nuclear fuel material and reactors are limited to peaceful uses in accordance with the spirit of the Atomic Energy Basic Act, and also to provide necessary regulations on refining activities, fabricating and enrichment activities, interim storage activities, reprocessing activities and waste disposal activities, as well as on the installment and operation of reactors in order to prevent radioactive substances from being released at unsafe levels from nuclear facilities or installations, as a result of either a severe accident or a large scale natural disaster.

In response to the accident at TEPCO’s Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, the Reactor Regulation Act was revised by the Supplementary Provisions of the Act for Establishment of the Nuclear Regulation Authority in June 2012, for the purpose of introducing new regulations based on lessons learned, availability of the latest technical knowledge, as well as trends in overseas regulations, including regulatory requirements specified by international organizations such as the IAEA. The main points of the revision include the following:

  1. Strengthening countermeasures against severe accidents;

  2. Adoption of the latest technical knowledge and introduction of the backfitting system, under which already authorized nuclear facilities are also required to conform to new regulatory requirements;

  3. Introduction of an approval system for the extension of operational periods;

  4. Integration of all safety regulations on power reactors into the Reactor Regulation Act.

Based on the Reactor Regulation Act, it is necessary to go through the following steps for the installation of a nuclear power plant (see Fig. 6): (i) installation permit/amendment of permit; (ii) approval of construction plan; and (iii) approval of operational safety programme.

FIG. 6. Regulations in installation of nuclear power plants.

3.2.3. Act on the Regulation of Radioisotopes, etc.

The purpose of this Act is, in accordance with the spirit of the Atomic Energy Basic Act (Act No. 186 of 1955), to provide regulations on the use, sale, lease, waste management, and other handling of radioisotopes, the use of radiation generators, and waste management or other handling of objects contaminated with radioisotopes or by radiation emitted from radiation generators, thereby preventing radiation hazards caused by those activities, and to secure specified radioisotopes and ensure public safety.

3.2.4. Act on Special Measures Concerning Nuclear Emergency Preparedness

The main purposes of the Act include:

  • Taking rapid initial action and ensuring integrated cooperation between the State and local governments;

  • Strengthening the national emergency preparedness system for responding to a nuclear disaster;

  • Clarifying the licensee’s role in preventing nuclear disasters.

3.2.5. Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage

Nuclear energy enterprises (electric power companies) owe no fault liability for compensation to injured parties when nuclear damage is caused through the operation of nuclear reactors.

Nuclear energy enterprises are obliged to deposit a fixed amount of money (maximum of JPY 120 billion) to cover the cost of measures taken to compensate for potential damage, including the following:

  • Completing insurance contracts for damage compensation with private insurers;

  • Executing an indemnity contract with the Government.

If damage exceeds the amount deposited for compensation, the Government will provide assistance if necessary.

3.2.6. Act on the Tax for the Promotion of the Electric Power Development Law

The Act provides for collecting taxes used to fund the promotion of electric power development (based on electric power sold).

3.2.7. Act on Special Accounts

The Act is for clarifying the government accounts for the uses of the tax revenue.

3.2.8. Act on the Development of Areas Adjacent to Electric Power-Generating Facilities

The Act is for the promotion of public institutions to aid in developing generating facilities.

3.2.9. Act on Special Measures Concerning Promotion of the Development of Nuclear Power Site Regions

The Act promotes the development of regions where nuclear power plants are located by providing financial and other assistance, and protection against the spread of nuclear accidents.

3.2.10. Designated Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act

The Act prescribes the implementation of disposal procedures, a funding mechanism for disposal costs, and a systematic site selection process.

The laws listed in Sections 3.2.6–3.2.10 are intended to promote electric power development by returning benefits to the local area that are gained for the whole country from a stable supply of electricity through the siting of a power plant in that area.

APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL, MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

AGREEMENTS WITH THE IAEA

Amendments of Article VI of the Statute of the IAEA
Ratified:
31 May 2000
Agreement on the privileges and immunities of the IAEA
Entry into force:
18 April 1963
Agreement between Japan and the IAEA in implementation of Article III, 1 and 4 of the NPT
Entry into force:
2 December 1977
Protocol Additional to the Agreement between Japan and the IAEA in implementation of Article III, 1 and 4 of the NPT
Entry into force:
16 December 1999
Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology for Asia and the Pacific (RCA)
Entry into force:
11 June 2017

MAIN INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
Entry into force:
8 June 1976
Convention on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material
Entry into force:
27 November 1988
Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material
Entry into force:
8 May 2016
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident
Entry into force:
10 July 1987
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency
Entry into force:
10 July 1987
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
Non-party

Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
Non-party

Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage
Entry into force:
15 April 2015
Convention on Nuclear Safety
Entry into force:
24 October 1996
Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management
Entry into force:
24 November 2003

BILATERAL AGREEMENT [2]

Agreement for:
Canada

Provision of information;
Effective date:
27 July 1960
  • Provision of nuclear materials, facilities and equipment;

Agreement amended:
2 September 1980
Transfer of patent rights;
(Valid for 10 years, terminated thereafter by notice 6 months prior to the said termination date)

  • Use of facilities and equipment;


  • Provision of technical assistance and services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
United Kingdom

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
15 October 1968
  • Provision and exchange of information;

  • Provision of nuclear material and equipment;

Agreement amended:
12 October 1998
  • Provision of services;

(Valid for 25 years, terminated thereafter by notice 6 months prior to the said termination date)

  • Other means.





Agreement for:
France

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
22 September 1972
  • Exchange of information;

Agreement amended:
19 July 1990
  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and sensitive technologies;

(Valid for 45 years, terminated thereafter by notice 6 months prior to the said termination date)

  • Provision of services;


  • Cooperation in mining and the exploitation and use of mines;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Australia

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
17 August 1982
  • Provision and exchange of information;

(Valid for 30 years, terminated thereafter by notice 6 months prior to the said termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and sensitive technologies;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
China

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
10 July 1986
  • Provision and exchange of information;

(Valid for 15 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and facilities;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
United States of America

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
17 July 1988
  • Provision and exchange of information;

(Valid for 30 years, terminated thereafter by notice 6 months prior to the said termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and components;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Euratom

Provision of nuclear material and equipment;
Effective date:
20 December 2006
  • Provision of services;

(Valid for 30 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Exchange of experts;


  • Provision and exchange of information;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Kazakhstan

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
6 May 2011
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 10 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Republic of Korea

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
21 January 2012
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 10 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Viet Nam

Exchange of experts and trainees;
Effective date:
21 January 2012
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 10 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Jordan

Exchange of experts and trainees;
Effective date:
7 February 2012
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 20 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
Russian Federation

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
3 May 2012
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 25 years, terminated thereafter by notice 6 months prior to the said termination)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services.







Agreement for:
Turkey

Exchange of experts and trainees;
Effective date:
29 June 2014
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 15 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
United Arab Emirates

Exchange of experts;
Effective date:
10 July 2014
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 20 years, automatically extended thereafter for 5 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services;


  • Other means.





Agreement for:
India

  • Exchange of experts;

Effective date:
20 July 2017
  • Exchange of information;

(Valid for 40 years, automatically extended thereafter for 10 years unless notice is provided 6 months prior to the termination date)

  • Provision of nuclear material, equipment and technology;


  • Provision of services.


APPENDIX 2: MAIN ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS, AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES

NATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AUTHORITY


Japan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC), Cabinet Office
tel.: (+81) 3 6257 1315

Central Government Building No. 8, 1-6-1 Nagatacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.aec.go.jp



REGULATORY AUTHORITY


Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA)
tel.: (+81) 3 3581 3352

1-9-9 Roppongi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.nsr.go.jp



GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS


Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
tel.: (+81) 3 5253 4111

3-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.mext.go.jp




Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
tel.: (+81) 3 3501 1511

1-3-1 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.meti.go.jp




Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA)
tel.: (+81) 3 3580 3311

2-2-1 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.mofa.go.jp




Ministry of the Environment (MOE)
tel.: (+81) 3 3581 3351

Godochosha No. 5, Kasumigaseki 1-2-2, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
web site: www.env.go.jp




Nuclear Disaster Management Bureau, Cabinet Office (CAO)
tel.: (+81) 3 5253 2111

1-6-1 Nagatacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www8.cao.go.jp/genshiryoku_bousai/index.html



CORPORATIONS RELATED TO NUCLEAR POWER


Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
tel.: (+81) 29 282 1122

765-1 Funaishikawa, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki, Japan
web site: www.jaea.go.jp




Japan Atomic Industrial Forum Inc. (JAIF)
tel.: (+81) 3 6256 9313

5th Floor, Kowa Nibancho Building,11-19 Nibancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.jaif.or.jp




Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI)
tel.: (+81) 3 3201 6601

Otemachi Bldg.,1-6-1, Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: http://criepi.denken.or.jp




World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO) Tokyo Centre
tel.: (+81) 3 6722 5900

Igarashi Building 2-11-5 Shibaura, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.wano-tc.or.jp



OWNERS/OPERATORS


The Federation of Electric Power Companies (FEPC)
tel.: (+81) 3 5221 1444

1-3-2, Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.fepc.or.jp




Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc. (HEPCO)
tel.: (+81) 11 251 1111

2, Higashi 1-chome, Odori, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
web site: www.hepco.co.jp




Tohoku Electric Power Co., Inc. (TOHOKU)
tel.: (+81) 22 225 2111

1-7-1 Honcho, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
web site: www.tohoku-epco.co.jp




Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings, Inc. (TEPCO)
tel.: (+81) 3 6373 1111

1-1-3, Uchisaiwai-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.tepco.co.jp




Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc. (CHUBU)
tel.: (+81) 52 951 8211

1 Higashi-shincho, Higashi-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
web site: www.chuden.co.jp




Hokuriku Electric Power Co (HOKURIKU)
tel.: (+81) 76 441 2511

15-1 Ushijima-cho, Toyama-shi, Toyama, Japan
web site: www.rikuden.co.jp




The Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc. (KEPCO)
tel.: (+81) 6 6441 8821

3-6-16 Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan
web site: www.kepco.co.jp




The Chugoku Electric Power Co., Inc. (CHUGOKU)
tel.: (+81) 82 241 0211

4-33, Komachi Naka-ku, Hiroshima-shi, Hiroshima, Japan
web site: www.energia.co.jp




Shikoku Electric Power Co., Inc. (SHIKOKU)
tel.: (+81) 87 821 5061

2-5, Marunouchi, Takamatsu-shi, Kagawa, Japan
web site: www.yonden.co.jp




Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc. (KYUSHU)
tel.: (+81) 92 761 3031

2-1-82, Watanabe-dori, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka, Japan
web site: www.kyuden.co.jp




The Japan Atomic Power Co., Inc. (JAPC)
tel.: (+81) 3 6371 7400

5-2-1, Ueno Taito-ku, Tokyo, Japan
web site: www.japc.co.jp



FUEL CYCLE


Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
tel.: (+81) 29 282 1122

765-1 Funaishikawa, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki, Japan
web site: www.jaea.go.jp




Japan Nuclear Fuel Limited (JNFL)
tel.: (+81) 175 71 2000

4-108, Aza Okitsuke, Oaza Obuchi, Rokkasho, Kamikita-gun, Aomori, Japan
web site: www.jnfl.co.jp

REFERENCES

[1] NATIONAL DIET OF JAPAN, The Official Report of the Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission: Executive Summary, National Diet of Japan, Tokyo (2012).

[2] JAPAN ATOMIC INDUSTRIAL FORUM, INC., Nuclear Power Pocket Book, JAIF, Tokyo (2014).

Coordinator Information

Ms. Risa Higaki

Institution:

Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry

Contacts:

tel.: (+81) 3 3501 1991

fax: (+81) 3 3580 8447

email: higaki-risa@meti.go.jp


(1) Committees and authorities prescribed in Article 3, paragraph (2) of the National Government Organization Act are council organizations which are guaranteed independence in exercising their authority.