The energy policy of the Russian Federation is contained in an energy strategy document, which sets out policy for the period up to 2035 (https://minenergo.gov.ru/node/8504). In 2000, the Government of the Russian Federation first approved the main provisions of the Russian energy strategy to 2020, with the new Russian energy strategy being confirmed by the Government in 2003. The energy strategy outlined several main priorities: an increase in energy efficiency, reduction of impacts on the environment, increased sustainable development, energy development and technological development, as well as improved effectiveness and competitiveness. The energy strategy for the period up to 2020 also specifies that the document should be amended where necessary at least once every 5 years, and the latest document covers through 2035. Under these circumstances, the structural policy for the energy sector over the next 10–15 years includes the following:

• Enhancement of the efficiency of natural gas utilization and an increase in its share of domestic consumption, especially in ecologically strained regions;

• In-depth processing and comprehensive utilization of hydrocarbon raw materials;

• Enhancement of coal quality, as well as the stabilization of coal production volumes;

• Intensification of local and renewable energy resource development (hydropower and wind power, peat, etc.);

• Prioritizing electricity generation development, based on competitive and ecologically clean power plants;

• Safety and reliability enhancement of the Gen I NPPs and development of new, advanced NPPs.

The new technological energy policy is oriented towards the following:

• Radical enhancement of both the cost effectiveness and energy efficiency of all stages of the extraction, conversion, distribution and utilization of energy resources;

• Effective decentralization of the energy supply;

• Ecological and accident safety, as well as the reliability of energy supply;

• Development of qualitatively new technologies for the stable evolution of the power industry: ecologically clean coal fired power plants, safe NPPs, efficient processes for the utilization of new sources of power, etc.

Regional energy policy takes into account the existing principal differences in energy supply conditions and in the structures of the fuel resources of various parts of the Russian Federation. Regional energy self-governance and self-sufficiency are envisaged as major challenges (i.e. sustaining a unified national energy sector through the development of federal energy systems, involving electricity, gas and oil supply networks) (Energy Strategy of Russia 2035 — https://minenergo.gov.ru/node/1026).

Energy reserves are shown in Table 1. Fossil fuels form the basis for the Russian energy sector.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

*Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: metric tonnnes; hydro, renewable: TW.

Calculation of EJ equivalent for renewables is expressed for a period of 10 years.

**Solids include both coal and lignite.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; Country Information.

Table 2 provides an overview of historical energy data. The share of nuclear energy in total energy consumption is about 2%, while hydropower remains the most prominent renewable energy resource in the Russian Federation. The share of hydropower in energy consumption is also about 2%.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

*Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import-Export) of secondary energy.

**Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

—: data not available.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; Country Information.

The Russian electric power system consists of both interconnected (unified) and disconnected parts. More than 90% of the generation capacities run synchronously on a vast territory spanning almost 7000 km from east to west. Off-grid electric systems supply customers in the far eastern and northern territories of the country. The transmission network covers ten time zones and helps to meet peak demand in winter. Nuclear sources are useful insofar as they can be used significantly longer than some fossil fuels. Currently, this source of energy is considered the most viable for electricity generation for the next 50 years (https://minenergo.gov.ru/en).

Transmission and distribution

The Unified Energy System (UES) of the Russian Federation consists of 71 regional energy systems, which, in turn, form 7 integrated energy systems: East, Siberia, Urals, Middle Volga, South, Centre and Northwest. All power systems are connected by intersystem high voltage power lines with voltage of 220–500 kV and higher and operate in synchronous mode (in parallel).

Unified Energy System (UES)

UES is a unique system which supports economic benefits for both the people and industry of the Russian Federation. The technical basis of UES comprises the following:

• The electric power complex of UES includes 846 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW each. As of 1 January 2020, the total installed capacity of power plants of UES amounted to 246 342.45 MW (www.so-ups.ru/?id=962).

• A total of 3.018 million km of electric power lines;

• A supply regulation system that physically unites all power installations with a single 50 Hz current frequency.

The organizational basis of UES comprises the following:

• RAO, which acts as a central locus that implements the functioning and development criteria established by the Government, based on effectiveness, and provides operational supply management aimed at increasing economic efficiency at UES;

• 74 power suppliers that supply electric and heat power to consumers throughout the Russian Federation;

• 34 large electric power stations that operate independently on the federal (national) wholesale electric power market;

• Over 300 organizations providing technological backup and development for UES, and which ensure the viability of the industry as a whole.

Privatization and electricity market reform

The restructuring of the Russian Federation’s power generation sector was completed on 1 July 2008, when the state monopoly RAO UES was dissolved. The country’s transmission grid remained under state control, however. The reform has created a generating sector divided into multiple wholesale electricity companies, which participate in a new competitive wholesale market.

The main participants in the wholesale market are the following:

• Thermal wholesale generation companies (6);

• Atomic generation company;

• Hydropower generation company;

• Other generation companies;

• Federal grid company;

• Trading operator;

• System operator.

Electricity exports

Electricity supplies from the Russian Federation abroad amounted to 20.05 billion kW?h in 2019, which is 12.8% more than in 2018, according to the Federal Customs Service (FCS) materials.

Table 3 shows the historical electricity production data and installed capacities, and Table 4 shows the energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. INSTALLED CAPACITY, ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

*Latest available data.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; the Russian Federation in figures (http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/doc_2017/rusfig/rus17.pdf), Summary Statistical Transactions.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

*Latest available data.

**Net import / Total energy consumption.

n.a.: data not applicable.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Annual Report of the UES in 2017 (http://so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2018/ups_rep2017.pdf), Summary Statistical Transactions.

The Russian Federation is optimistic about its nuclear programme, despite a recent decline in demand for electricity, as electricity generation from NPPs increased by 11% over the past six years. The installed capacity of NPPs also increased by 9%. Currently, six new nuclear power reactors are under construction. The Russian Federation is taking part in the construction of new NPPs in China, India and the Islamic Republic of Iran, among and others. Agreements on the development of nuclear power production were signed with Belarus, Finland and Hungary.

Below is a chronological outline of the development of nuclear power in the Russian Federation.

The State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom maintains competencies to oversee and work at all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle and production chain, from uranium mining to decommissioning of nuclear facilities or management of spent nuclear fuel. Rosatom as a whole brings together about 400 enterprises and organizations, including the world’s only nuclear icebreaker fleet. It is the largest electricity generating company in the country, accounting for about 18.7% of the country’s total generation of electricity; the Russian Federation is one of the top five countries in the world for total nuclear power generation.

The State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom consists of divisions formed according to the basic segments of the nuclear fuel cycle:

• Uranium mining;

• Fuel and enrichment;

• Machine building;

• Engineering;

• Power generation;

• Nuclear services and maintenance;

• Back end;

• R&D.

In addition, ROSATOM offers products and services in the following areas:

• Nuclear medicine;

• Non-nuclear equipment manufacturing;

• Nuclear icebreaker fleet;

• Wind energy;

• Promising materials and technologies;

• New business areas.

Figure 1 shows the structure of the nuclear industry in the Russian Federation.

FIG. 1. Structure of the nuclear industry in the Russian Federation.

Figure 2 shows a map of NPPs in the Russian Federation. Table 5 shows the current status of the Russian Federation’s NPPs. In total, 38 power units with an installed capacity of 30.3 GW are operated at 11 NPPs in the Russian Federation, consisting of the following:

• 21 power units with WWER reactors (of which 3 are WWER-1200 power units, 13 are WWER-1000 power units and 5 are WWER-440 power units of various modifications);

• 13 power units with channel reactors (10 power units with RBMK-1000 reactors and 3 power units with EGP-6 reactors);

• 2 power units with sodium cooled fast reactors (BN-600 and BN-800).

• 2 nuclear reactors, type KLT-40S, with an electric capacity of 35 MW each.

FIG. 2. Map of NPPs in the Russian Federation.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Nuclear power generation made up about 19% of the country’s total electricity generation in 2019. NPPs are operated by Rosenergoatom.

The lifetime extension activities for units of NPPs were initiated pursuant to the programme of development of the nuclear power industry in the Russian Federation in 1998–2005 and the period up to 2010, approved by Russian Federation Government Decree No. 815 of 21 July 1998. The long term programme of activities of the Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation for the period 2009–2015, approved by Russian Federation Government Decree No. 705 of 20 September 2008, calls for lifetime extension of operational nuclear power units.

Most reactors are being licensed for lifetime extension. Half of the Russian Federation’s nuclear generation in 2015 came from units which had been upgraded for long term operation and were operating beyond their initial design lifetimes (of around 30 years), mostly with 15 year extensions initially. Twenty-four of 34 reactors operating in 2015 had been upgraded with lifetime extensions, adding 3 GW(e) of generating capacity. Of the other ten, five were being upgraded and five were relatively new.

Generally, Russian reactors were originally licensed for 30 years from first power. Late in 2000, plans were announced for lifetime extensions of 12 first generation reactors (Leningrad 1 and 2, Kursk 1 and 2, Kola 1 and 2, Bilibino 1–4 and Novovoronezh 3 and 4), totalling 5.7 GW(e), necessitating major investment in refurbishment. In 2014, a new state programme on licence extension was approved, bringing standards into line with international ones.

Through the end of 2011, 15 year extensions had been achieved for 17 units totalling 9.8 GW(e). Through mid-2016, operational licence extensions had been implemented for 24 units, totalling 16 242 MW(e): Beloyarsk 3, Novovoronezh 3–5, Kola 1–4, Kalinin 1, Balakovo 1, Kursk 1–4, Leningrad 1–4, Smolensk 1 and 2 and Bilibino 1–4. Projects for Balakovo 2–4, Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 will be carried out by 2023.

WWER-440 units have generally received 15 year life extensions. Kola 2 is undergoing safety analysis, with a goal to extend its licence to 60 years, and Kola 1 is also expected to be licensed beyond 45 years after annealing the reactor pressure vessel. The Kola 3 licence extension to 2026 (45 years) was confirmed in February 2016 after upgrading work. Novovoronezh 4 is expected to be licensed to 60 years using cannibalized parts from Unit 3, shut down at the end of 2016.

Most WWER-1000 units are expected to have 30 year licence extensions. In 2015, Balakovo 1 was licensed to 60 years, and intentions for Units 2–4 are similar. Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 are expected to have a 30 year licence extension by 2025.

In 2006, Rosatom said it was considering 15 year lifetime extensions and uprating of all 11 of its operating RBMK reactors; 10 had licence extensions by mid-2016. Following significant design modifications made after the Chernobyl accident, as well as extensive refurbishment, including replacement of fuel channels, a 45 year lifetime is seen as realistic for most of the 1000 MW(e) units. In 2011, these units provided 47.5% of the Russian Federation’s nuclear generated electricity.

For older RBMK units, service lifetime performance recovery operations involve correcting deformation of the graphite stack. After dismantling the pressure tubes, longitudinal cutting of a limited number of graphite columns returns the graphite stack geometry to a condition that meets the initial design requirements. The procedure will give each of these older reactors at least three years of extra operation, and the procedure may then be repeated. Leningrad 1 was the first reactor to undergo this procedure in 2012–2013, followed by the Kursk and Smolensk units. In 2017, work was due to start on restoring lifetime performance of the graphite stacks. All three Smolensk units are set for a 45 year operating lifetime.

Most reactors are being uprated. The July 2012 Energy Ministry draft plan envisaged increasing the power of WWER-440 units to 107%, that of RBMKs to 105% and that of WWER-1000 units to 104–110% (revised to 107–110% in 2013).

In May 2015, Rosenergoatom said it had completed uprating all WWER-1000 reactors to 104% of rated power and was starting to raise levels to 107% using the advanced TVS-2M fuel design, starting with Balakovo 4. Earlier, uprating of 5% for WWER-440 reactors (but 7% for Kola 4) had been achieved, and in 2015, Kola 3 went to 107%. Kalinin Units 1–3 are quoted at 1075 MW(e) gross after uprate, and Unit 4 started pilot commercial operation at 104% of rated power in February 2015, with a 40 MW(e) increase.

Rosenergoatom has been investigating further uprates of WWER-1000 units to 107–110% of original capacity, using Balakovo 4 as a pilot plant through 2014. For the V-320 units, pilot commercial operation at 104% power is carried out over three fuel campaigns, with the reactor and other system parameters being monitored and relevant data collected. After this period, a cumulative 104% power operation report is produced for each plant. Rostechnadzor will then assess safety and possibly license commercial operation at the higher power level.

Rosenergoatom is considering the introduction of a 24 month fuel cycle at new nuclear power units. Previously, WWER-1000 reactors operated for 12 months without refuelling, and from 2008 the reactors were all converted to an 18 month fuel cycle. WWER-440s still use a 12 month cycle. To achieve 24 months in new units, the design of WWERs will need to be changed and fuel enrichment would need to be increased from 4–4.5% U-235 to 6–7% in the WWER-TOI design.

The research and development (R&D) Institute of Power Engineering was preparing plans for a 5% uprating of the later Leningrad, Kursk and Smolensk RBMK units. For Leningrad 2–4, fuel enriched to an average of 3% instead of 2.4% would allow a 5% increase in power, and Rostechnadzor authorized trials of the new fuel in Unit 2. Following this, it was to consider authorizing a 5% uprate for long term operation. However, Rosenergoatom in May 2012 flagged problems with ageing of the graphite moderator (most acute at Leningrad 1), questioned proceeding with uprates of older units, and said it would consider derating individual units where problems such as pressure tube distortion were apparent owing to graphite swelling. Leningrad 1 would be derated to 80% to prolong its operating life; work to restore its graphite stack and extend its service life was completed late in 2013. Similar work would then be done on all first generation RBMKs, since these are so important economically to Rosenergoatom. However, future RBMK operation might possibly be at a reduced capacity of 80% across all units. The successful repair of Leningrad 1 removed the pressure for accelerated replacement of old RBMK units.

On 23 December 2018, at 05:16, power unit No. 1 of the Kola NPP was connected to the grid after the completion of a large scale renovation with modernization that lasted 250 days. For the first time in the Russian nuclear power industry, the WWER-440 power unit was commissioned after the renewal of its service life. Power unit No. 1 was commissioned at Kola NPP after modernization and repair. An operation to extend the service life of a WWER-1000 reactor installation was conducted at Balakovo NPP and a reduction annealing of the metal of the WWER-1000 reactor vessel was carried out at Unit 1 of the Balakovo NPP. The BN-600 reactor resumed operation at Beloyarsk NPP. A unique repair of turbogenerator No. 1 of the first power unit was carried out at Smolensk NPP.

On 19 June 2018, an acceptance test (complex testing) was successfully completed at power unit No. 4 of the Rostov NPP before commercial operation. The power unit WWER-1000/320 has a capacity of 1000 MW.

On 29 October 2018, the operating organization of the NPPs in the Russian Federation, Rosenergoatom, entered power unit No. 1 of the Leningrad NPP-2 into commercial operation. The reactor unit, with a WWER-1200 developed by OKB GIDROPRESS JSC, has a capacity of 1.2 GW.

Atomproject, an engineering subsidiary of Rosatom, has submitted its investment assessment for plans to extend the operation of Unit 3 of the Beloyarsk NPP — a BN-600 fast reactor — to 2040. Work on the project must be completed before 2024, Rosatom said, before applying to regulator Rostechnadzor to extend the operating licence, which currently covers 2020–2025. The unit started operations in 1980.

Rosenergoatom received a Rostekhnadzor licence to provide work in a mode suitable for decommissioning of power unit No. 1 of the Bilibino NPP. Unit No. 1 of the Bilibino NPP has been placed into permanent shutdown, where spent nuclear fuel has been removed to the storage pool. Power units No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 are in operation and provide a reliable supply of electricity to the consumers of the Chaun-Bilibinsky power center, and Bilibino consumers — also with heat and hot water. Table 6 shows the status of the decommissioning process for NPPs in the Russian Federation.

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Sources: PRIS database, Rosenergoatom (http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosenergoatom_copy/site_en/).

The latest Federal Target Programme envisages a 25–30% nuclear share in electricity supply by 2030, 45–50% by 2050 and 70–80% by the end of the century. The 10 units now under construction, to be completed by 2030, are listed in Table 7.

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: WWER-1200 is the reactor portion of the AES-2006 NPP.

Starting in 2020–2025, it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in the Russian Federation, with much of the fuel being recycled. Fast reactors are projected to provide some 34 GW(e) of capacity by 2050. The principal scheme for innovation in nuclear power for the Russian Federation is based on a new technology platform that envisages full recycling of fuel, from balancing thermal and fast reactors, so that 100 GW(e) of total capacity requires only about 100 t/y from enrichment of tails and natural uranium, with minor actinides being burned. About 100 t/y of fission product wastes will go to a geological repository.

The Federal Target Programme is based on WWER technology, at least until roughly 2030. It highlights the goal of moving to fast neutron reactors and a closed fuel cycle, for which Rosatom proposed two options. The first is to select a fast neutron reactor with lead coolant as the basic technology, and to mobilize all available resources for this exclusively. This is expected to cost RUR 110 billion, mostly drawing from the federal budget. The second option also provides for development of fast neutron reactors, cooled by sodium and lead–bismuth, with the related engineering designs of such reactors and closed fuel cycle technologies will be constructed after 2035. A detailed design should be developed for the construction of a multipurpose fast neutron research reactor by then also. This second option is designed to attract more funds aside from the federal budget allocation, and is the option favoured by Rosatom.

In February 2010, the Government announced that Rosenergoatom’s investment programme for 2010 amounted to RUR 163.3 billion, of which RUR 53 billion would come from the federal budget. Of the total cost, RUR 101.7 billion is for nuclear plant construction, almost half of which is to come from Rosenergoatom’s funds. It includes the reactors listed in Table 8 as under construction, as well as Leningrad II-2 and the Baltic plant. In March 2010, Rosatom said that it intended to commission three new reactors per year from 2016.

The Government of the Russian Federation approved a ten year modernization programme for the country’s power plants. The Government approved a plan by the Energy Ministry to upgrade nearly 40 GW of installed capacity, which accounts for around 16% of the Russian Federation’s total installed generation capacity. The project will run through 2031, and the Government plans to have long term predictability in electricity prices to provide businesses with long term predictability of energy costs.

The programme will run between 2022 and 2031. The first competitive selection will be held for 11 GW in April or May, with power supply expected to start in 2022–2024. The key selection criteria for equipment will be the cost per kW?h. The modernization programme will also aim to have as much domestic equipment and engineering as possible.

The power industry in the Russian Federation developed stepwise, by incorporating regional power systems, working in parallel, and forming interregional electric power pools, which merged to form a single power grid. The nation’s power grid started to evolve as soon as the GOELRO plan for national economic development was launched. The Russian Federation’s power grid, the main component of the national power industry, is a complex network of power plants and mains, which have the same operating mode and centralized dispatching control. The transition to this form of organization of the power industry made it possible to make the most of power resources and to improve the economics and reliability of the energy supply, for the benefit of both the economy and population.

This system spans 7 000 km west to east and over 3 000 km north to south. Also, in its more than 40 years in operation, the power grid has accumulated a wealth of experience in the reliable and efficient supply of high quality energy to users. Of the total of 74 power networks, the Russian Federation’s power grid comprises 69 power networks. Of the seven integrated power systems (IPSs), six work in parallel as part of the power grid: the Centre, Middle Volga, Urals, Northwest, North Caucasus and Siberia IPSs. The East IPS operates separately from the Siberia IPS. Working in parallel with the Russian Federation’s power grid are the power systems of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine, and, through the insertion of direct current, the power system of Finland.

Placement of NPPs in the Russian Federation is performed in accordance with Resolution No. 823 of the Government of the Russian Federation of 17 October 2009, on schemes for the long term development of electric power.

Basic principles of the schemes and programmes for long term electric power development are the following:

• Efficiency;

• Application of new technological solutions;

• Coordination of schemes and programmes of long term development of electric power related technologies;

• Publicity and openness of public investment strategies and solutions.

Territory near active volcanoes and territory at risk of exposure to tsunamis and catastrophic floods must be deemed unfavourable for the placement of NPPs.

Rosatom’s comprehensive offerings include public relations solutions that work towards public acceptance of nuclear power, which is viewed as a cornerstone of stability in the nuclear industry. Rosatom adheres to principles of transparency, raising public awareness of the Russian Federation’s nuclear operations. This approach enables it to secure public consensus (according to a survey conducted in 2013 by the Levada Analytical Centre, 71.5% of country’s population support the continued development of nuclear power).

The reprocessing option is the chosen method for dealing with spent reactor fuel with the exception of spent fuel originating from RBMKs, which is disposed of. Rosatom operates the RT-1 plant in Chelyabinsk for reprocessing fuel from WWER plants. Its capacity for WWER-440 fuel is 400 t HM/a. The construction of a second reprocessing plant (RT-2) at Krasnoyarsk which has a first line design capacity of 800 t HM/a has been postponed indefinitely. Reprocessed uranium is used for RBMK fuel production. Plutonium obtained at RT-1 is temporarily stored on-site in dioxide form. Rosatom operates several wet away from reactor fuel storage facilities at RT-1 and RT-2 and at several NPPs, with a total capacity of about 16 000 t HM/a (www.sibghk.ru).

Fundamental research

The following major nuclear industry research centres carry out extensive fundamental theoretical and experimental investigations into the properties of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, plasma and laser physics, thermonuclear fusion, development of new types of accelerator and reactor technology, and developing equipment and facilities for physical research:

• Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow;

• Institute of High Energy Physics, Protvino;

• Institute of Innovation and Thermonuclear Research, Troitsk.

Applied research and development

Following are the major scientific centres in the field of nuclear science and technology:

• The Russian Scientific Centre ‘Kurchatov Institute’, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre ‘Institute of Physics and Power Engineering’, Obninsk;

• The State Scientific Centre ‘All-Russian Inorganic Materials Research Institute’, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre Nuclear Reactor Research Institute, Dimitrovgrad;

• Research and Development Institute of Power Engineering, Moscow.

Theoretical and experimental research performed at these institutes on nuclear and particle physics, neutron physics, thermophysics, hydraulics, material science and nuclear safety have received strong recognition.

The All-Russian Research Institute for Nuclear Power Plant Operation of Moscow is the scientific centre for the Russian Federation’s nuclear operating organizations. Its principal work is assuring safe operation of first and second generation NPPs.

Major reactor and NSSS design and research

The following are centres of research in the area of reactors and nuclear steam supply systems:

• Experimental Design Bureau ‘Gidropress’, Podolsk;

• Experimental Design Bureau of Machine Building (OKBM), Nizhny Novgorod.

From 2020–2025, it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in the Russian Federation, with a large role for recycled fuels.

The fast reactor BN-1200 is being developed by OKBM Afrikantov in Zarechny, partly funded by a federal nuclear technology programme. The BN-1200 will produce 2900 MW(th) (1220 MW(e) gross), has a 60 year design life, simplified refuelling, and burnup of up to 120 GWd/t, with breeding ratio quoted as 1.2 to 1.4. Rosatom’s Scientific and Technical Board reviewed it along with cost estimates in August 2015. A detailed design of the prototype was completed in 2017.

Rosatom cooperates with other countries in many fields of activities, such as the following:

• Nuclear physics;

• Fundamental research into properties of matter;

• Controlled thermonuclear fusion;

• Physics of semiconductors and high temperature superconductivity;

• Isotopes;

• Technologies of elementary particle accelerators and electrophysical equipment;

• Atomic energy generation and nuclear fuel cycles;

• Radioactive waste management;

• Environmental protection.

Rosatom’s scientists and researchers are engaged in a wide range of studies conducted by the various international centres for nuclear research, including the European Organization for Nuclear Research, the National Accelerator Laboratory and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. The Russian Federation participates in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor quadripartite project. Rosatom scientists and engineers participate actively in both national and international symposia, seminars and conferences. Rosatom is engaged in intensive sharing and exchange of information on a bilateral level and through the International Nuclear Information System. Within Rosatom, there is a special institute (Atominform), merging all information flows of the industry and dealing with the problems associated with protecting Rosatom’s rights to the objects of intellectual property resulting from activities financed by the Ministry, as well as legal aspects of the transfer of these rights to third parties.

Recently, the problems of spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, of NPP safety and of environmental protection have been gaining in importance. The Russian Federation cooperates with the United States Department of Energy through the International Centre of Ecological Safety in the Russian Federation (Rosatom) and in the United States of America (the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory). Cooperation started in 1993, in management of spent nuclear fuel and of radioactive waste and in rehabilitation of contaminated territories in the northwest of the Russian Federation, with France, Norway, Sweden, the United States of America and the European Commission, and these initiatives are still in progress. In 1998, through the Minatom initiative, the Russian Federation began to cooperate with France and Germany to construct a European pressurized water reactor in the Russian Federation. A joint working group was formed, including experts from Minatom, Framatome and Siemens Company. The European Commission, rendering technical assistance on a gratuitous basis within the framework of the TACIS Programme, is one of the leading Western partners. In 1998, the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the Russian Federation and the European Union was implemented. Throughout recent years, the Russian Federation has taken part in activities in compliance with the agreement on the International Science and Technology Centre.

From 1994 to 1997, research and development activities to fabricate uranium–plutonium fuel for Canada deuterium–uranium (CANDU) reactors from weapons grade plutonium were carried out in cooperation with Canada. At present, the joint Russian–US efforts are focused on decommissioning of weapons grade plutonium production reactors. In 1999, a draft intergovernmental agreement between the Russian Federation and the Netherlands on cooperation in safe dismantling of nuclear weapons in the Russian Federation and in utilization of removed nuclear powered submarines was elaborated.

By convention, the designing, mounting and commissioning of NPPs and large scale production installations in the territories of the CIS and other countries form an essential part of the international cooperation of Rosatom. Ukraine and Kazakhstan are the Russian Federation’s most active partners. A draft agreement on cooperation in the nuclear fuel cycle was elaborated and coordinated recently with Ukraine. Activities to complete construction and to put into operation the Rovno and the Khmelnitsky NPPs are in progress. The Russian Federation supplies nuclear fuel to Ukraine, and transports spent nuclear fuel out of the country. The Russian Federation cooperates with Kazakhstan in production of nuclear fuel and in other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle.

Rosatom cooperates with Bulgaria, China, Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Slovakia and the Syrian Arab Republic in construction and operation of NPPs and large scale production installations. There is also progress in Russian–Japanese relations in the field.

The Russian Federation takes part in the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). The objective of INPRO is to support the safe, sustainable, economic and proliferation resistant use of nuclear technology to meet the global energy needs of the 21st century. INPRO provides an open international forum for studying the nuclear power option and associated requirements, and its potential application in IAEA Member States. INPRO helps to make adequate competence available for the development and deployment of innovative nuclear energy systems and helps to assist Member States in the coordination of related collaborative projects.

The Russian Federal Supervision of Nuclear and Radiological Safety (Gosatomnadzor) is the nuclear regulatory body of the Russian Federation, with headquarters in Moscow and seven regional offices throughout the country.

The following regulations determine the procedure for NPP licensing:

1. Regulations on the order of special permission, issued by Gosatomnadzor for examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-12-94.

2. Regulations on arranging and carrying out examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-13-94.

3. Regulations on the order of issuing of special temporary permissions for designing nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-14-94.

The stages of obtaining the temporary permission (licence) for NPP unit operation can be represented in brief as follows:

1. Licence demand (submission of application documents);

2. Gosatomnadzor decision on the demand required control;

3. Analysis of substantiating materials for demand;

4. Inspection of the NPP;

5. Conclusion of examination of substantiating materials;

6. Conclusion of NPP inspection;

7. General conclusion of obtaining temporary permission (licence);

8. Licence (temporary permission).