The energy policy of the Russian Federation is contained in an energy strategy document, which sets out policy for the period up to 2020. In 2000, the Russian Government approved the main provisions of the Russian energy strategy to 2020, with the new Russian energy strategy being confirmed by the Government in 2003. The energy strategy outlines several main priorities: an increase in energy efficiency, reduction of impacts on the environment, increased sustainable development, energy development and technological development, as well as improved effectiveness and competitiveness. In the Energy Strategy of Russia for the period up to 2020, it is also specified that the document should be amended where necessary at least once every 5 years. Inn 2009, the strategy was also extended to the time period of up to 2030 with new goals and priorities for the country development.

Under these circumstances, the structural policy for the energy sector over the next 10–15 years includes:

• Enhancement of the efficiency of natural gas utilization and an increase in its share of domestic consumption, especially in ecologically strained regions;

• In-depth processing and comprehensive utilization of hydrocarbon raw materials;

• Enhancement of coal quality, as well as the stabilization of coal production volumes;

• Intensification of local and renewable energy resource development (hydro and wind power, peat, etc.);

• Prioritizing electricity generation development, based on competitive and ecologically clean power plants;

• Safety and reliability enhancement of the first generation nuclear power plants (NPPs) and development of new, advanced NPPs.

The new technological energy policy is oriented towards:

• Radical enhancement of both the cost effectiveness and energy efficiency of all stages of the extraction, conversion, distribution and utilization of energy resources;

• Effective decentralization of the energy supply;

• Ecological and accident safety, as well as the reliability of energy supply;

• Development of qualitatively new technologies for the stable evolution of the power industry: ecologically clean coal fired power plants, safe nuclear power plants, efficient processes for the utilization of new sources of power, etc.

Regional energy policy takes into account the existing principal differences in energy supply conditions and in the structures of the fuel resources of various parts of the Russian Federation. Regional energy self-governance and self-sufficiency are envisaged as major challenges, i.e. the sustaining of the unified national energy sector through the development of federal energy systems, involving electricity, gas and oil supply networks (Energy Strategy of Russia — http://www.energystrategy.ru/projects/docs/ES-2030_%28Eng%29.pdf).

Energy reserves are shown in Table 1. Fossil fuels form the basis for the Russian energy sector.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

*Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: metric tonnnes; hydro, renewable: TW.

Calculation of EJ equivalent for renewables is expressed for a period of 10 years.

**Solids include both coal and lignite.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; Country Information.

Table 2 provides an overview of historical energy data. The share of nuclear energy in total energy consumption is about 2%, while hydro energy remains the most prominent renewable energy resource in the Russian Federation. The share of hydro energy in energy consumption is also about 2%.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

*Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import-Export) of secondary energy.

**Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

—: data not available.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; Country Information.

The Russian electric power system consists of both interconnected (unified) and disconnected parts. More than 90% of the generation capacities run synchronously on a vast territory spanning almost 7000 kilometers from east to west. Off-grid electric systems supply customers in the far eastern and northern territories of the country. The transmission network covers ten time zones and helps to meet peak demand in winter. Nuclear sources are useful insofar as they can be used significantly longer than some fossil fuels. Currently, this source of energy is considered the most viable for electricity generation for the next 50 years (https://minenergo.gov.ru/en).

Transmission and distribution

There are seven separate regional power systems in the Russian electricity sector: Northwest, Centre, Middle Volga, North Caucasus, Urals, Siberia, and Far East. The Far East region is the only one not connected to an integrated power system. Unified Energy System of Russia (referred to as UES or UESR), which is 52% owned by the Russian Government (Gazprom now has a 10% stake), controls most of the transmission and distribution in the Russian Federation. UES owns 96% of the transmission and distribution system, the central dispatch unit, and the federal wholesale electricity market.

Unified Energy System

UES is a unique system which supports economic benefits for both the Russian people and Russian industry. The technical basis of UES comprises:

• 700 electric power stations with a total installed capacity of 239.8 thousand MW, including 27.9 thousand MW at nuclear power stations, which produced 1073.6 billion kWh of power in 2017 (https://minenergo.gov.ru/node/532);

• A total of 3.018 million km of electric power lines;

• A supply regulation system that physically unites all power installations with a single 50 Hz current frequency.

The organizational basis of UES comprises:

• RAO, which acts as a central locus that implements the functioning and development criteria established by the Government, based on effectiveness, and provides operational supply management aimed at increasing economic efficiency at UES;

• 74 power suppliers that supply electric and heat power to consumers throughout the Russian Federation;

• 34 large electric power stations that operate independently on the federal (national) wholesale electric power market;

• Over 300 organizations providing technological backup and development for UES, and which ensure the viability of the industry as a whole.

Privatization and electricity market reform

The restructuring of the Russian Federation’s power generation sector was completed on 1 July 2008, when the state monopoly RAO UES was dissolved. The country’s transmission grid remained under state control, however. The reform has created a generating sector divided into multiple wholesale electricity companies, which participate in a new competitive wholesale market.

The main participants in the wholesale market are:

• Thermal wholesale generation companies (6);

• Atomic generation company;

• Hydro generation company;

• Other generation companies;

• Federal grid company;

• Trading operator;

• System operator.

Electricity exports

The Russian Federation exports significant quantities of electricity to countries of the former Soviet Union, as well as to China, Finland, Poland and Turkey. UES also has plans to export electricity to the Islamic Republic of Iran, and possibly to Afghanistan and Pakistan, from two hydroelectric stations it is currently building in Tajikistan. There are also currently two efforts under way to integrate the Russian and western European electricity grids. UES is participating in the Baltrel programme, designed to create an energy ring of power companies in the Baltic States. The Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity, of which 20 European countries are members, has also entered into discussions with Russian colleagues over the technological and operational aspects of interconnecting their systems.

Table 3 shows the historical electricity production data and installed capacities, and Table 4 shows the energy related ratios.

TABLE 3. INSTALLED CAPACITY, ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

*Latest available data.

**Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Data Bank; the Russian Federation in figures (http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/doc_2017/rusfig/rus17.pdf), Summary Statistical Transactions.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

*Latest available data.

**Net import / Total energy consumption.

n.a.: data not applicable.

Sources: IAEA Energy and Economic Database; Annual Report of the UES in 2017 (http://so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2018/ups_rep2017.pdf), Summary Statistical Transactions.

The Russian Federation is optimistic about its nuclear programme, despite a recent decline in demand for electricity, as electricity generation from nuclear power plants increased by 11% over the past six years. The installed capacity of nuclear power plants also increased by 9%. Currently, six new nuclear power reactors are under construction. The Russian Federation is taking part in the construction of new NPPs in China, India and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Agreements on the development of nuclear power production were signed with Belarus, Finland and Hungary.

Below is a chronological outline of the development of nuclear power in the Russian Federation.

The State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom maintains competencies to oversee and work at all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle and production chain from, uranium mining to decommissioning of nuclear facilities or management of spent nuclear fuel. Rosatom as a whole brings together about 400 enterprises and organizations, including the world’s only nuclear icebreaker fleet. It is the largest electricity generating company in the country, accounting for about 18.7% of the country’s total generation of electricity, where the Russian Federation is also the third in the world for total nuclear power generation.

The State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom consists of divisions formed according to the basic segments of the nuclear fuel cycle:

• Uranium mining

• Fuel and enrichment

• Machine building

• Engineering

• Power generation

• Nuclear services and maintenance

• Back end

• R&D

In addition, ROSATOM offering products and services in the following areas:

• Nuclear medicine

• Non-nuclear equipment manufacturing

• Nuclear icebreaker fleet

• Wind energy

• Promising materials and technologies

• New business areas

Figure 1 shows the structure of the nuclear industry in the Russian Federation.

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FIG. 1. Structure of the nuclear industry in the Russian Federation.

Figure 2 shows a map of Russian nuclear power plants. Table 5 shows the current status of the Russian Federation’s nuclear power plants.

With 36 operating reactors, the Russian Federation’s nuclear plants comprise:

• Three first generation pressurized water reactors similar to the WWER-440.

• Two second generation WWER-440 pressurized water reactors.

• Thirteen third generation WWER-1000 pressurized water reactors, mostly V-320 types.

• Three WWER-1200 reactors.

• Ten RBMK light water graphite reactors now unique to the Russian Federation. The four oldest of these were commissioned in the 1970s at Kursk and Leningrad.

• Three small graphite moderated boiling water reactors in eastern Siberia constructed in the 1970s for cogeneration (EGP-6 models in Fig. 2).

• BN-600 and BN-800 fast reactors.

FIG. 2. Map of Russian nuclear power plants.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Nuclear power generation made up about 18% of the country’s total electricity generation in 2018. Nuclear power plants are operated by Concern Rosenergoatom.

The lifetime extension activities for units of NPPs were initiated pursuant to the programme of development of the nuclear power industry in the Russian Federation in 1998–2005 and the period up to 2010, approved by Russian Federation Government Decree No. 815 of 21 July 1998. The long term programme of activities of the Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation for the period 2009–2015, approved by Russian Federation Government Decree No. 705 of 20 September 2008, calls for lifetime extension of operational nuclear power units.

Most reactors are being licensed for lifetime extension. Half of the Russian Federation’s nuclear generation in 2015 came from units which had been upgraded for long term operation and were operating beyond their initial design lifetimes (of around 30 years), mostly with 15 year extensions initially. Twenty-four of 34 reactors operating in 2015 had been upgraded with lifetime extensions, adding 3 GW(e) of generating capacity. Of the other ten, five were being upgraded and five were relatively new.

Generally, Russian reactors were originally licensed for 30 years from first power. Late in 2000, plans were announced for lifetime extensions of 12 first generation reactors (Leningrad 1 and 2, Kursk 1 and 2, Kola 1 and 2, Bilibino 1–4 and Novovoronezh 3 and 4), totaling 5.7 GW(e), necessitating major investment in refurbishing them. However, the cost of this is generally only one fifth that of building replacement capacity. In 2014, a new state programme on licence extension was approved, bringing standards into line with international ones.

Through the end of 2011, 15 year extensions had been achieved for 17 units totaling 9.8 GW(e). Through mid-2016, operational licence extensions had been implemented for 24 units, totaling 16 242 MW(e): Beloyarsk 3, Novovoronezh 3–5, Kola 1–4, Kalinin 1, Balakovo 1, Kursk 1–4, Leningrad 1–4, Smolensk 1 and 2 and Bilibino 1–4. Projects for Balakovo 2–4, Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 will be carried out by 2023.

WWER-440 units have generally received 15 year life extensions (Kola 1 and 2 WWER-440 units are V-230 models, which the European Union has paid to shut down early in countries outside the Russian Federation; Novovoronezh 4, a V-179, is a predecessor to these). Kola 2 is undergoing safety analysis, with a goal to extend its licence to 60 years, and Kola 1 is also expected to be licensed beyond 45 years after annealing the reactor pressure vessel. The Kola 3 licence extension to 2026 (45 years) was confirmed in February 2016 after upgrading work. Novovoronezh 4 is expected to be licensed to 60 years using cannibalized parts from Unit 3, shut down at the end of 2016.

Most WWER-1000 units are expected to have 30 year licence extensions. In 2015, Balakovo 1 was licensed to 60 years, and intentions for Units 2–4 are similar. Kalinin 2 and Smolensk 3 are expected to have a 30 year licence extension by 2025.

In 2006, Rosatom said it was considering 15 year lifetime extensions and uprating of all 11 of its operating RBMK reactors; 10 had licence extensions by mid-2016. Following significant design modifications made after the Chernobyl accident, as well as extensive refurbishment, including replacement of fuel channels, a 45 year lifetime is seen as realistic for most of the 1000 MW(e) units. In 2011, these units provided 47.5% of the Russian Federation’s nuclear generated electricity.

For older RBMK units, service lifetime performance recovery operations involve correcting deformation of the graphite stack. After dismantling the pressure tubes, longitudinal cutting of a limited number of graphite columns returns the graphite stack geometry to a condition that meets the initial design requirements. The procedure will give each of these older reactors at least three years of extra operation, and then the procedure may then be repeated. Leningrad 1 was the first reactor to undergo this over 2012–2013, followed by the Kursk and Smolensk units. In 2017, work is due to start on restoring lifetime performance of the graphite stacks. All three Smolensk units are set for a 45-year operating lifetime.

Most reactors are being uprated. The July 2012 Energy Ministry draft plan envisaged increasing the power of WWER-440 units to 107%, that of RBMKs to 105% and that of WWER-1000 units to 104–110% (revised to 107–110% in 2013).

In May 2015, Rosenergoatom said it had completed uprating all WWER-1000 reactors to 104% of rated power, and was starting to raise levels to 107% using the advanced TVS-2M fuel design, starting with Balakovo 4. Earlier, uprating of 5% for WWER-440 reactors (but 7% for Kola 4) had been achieved, and in 2015, Kola 3 went to 107%. The overall cost was less than RUR 3 billion (US $60.5 million), according to Rosenergoatom. The cost of this was earlier put at US $200/kw, compared with $2400/kW for construction of Rostov 2. Kalinin Units 1–3 are quoted at 1075 MW(e) gross after uprate, and Unit 4 started pilot commercial operation at 104% of rated power in February 2015, with a 40 MW(e) increase.

Rosenergoatom has been investigating further uprates of WWER-1000 units to 107–110% of original capacity, using Balakovo 4 as a pilot plant through 2014. The cost of further uprates beyond 104% is expected to be up to US $570/kW, depending on what needs to be replaced — the turbine generators being the main items. For the V-320 units, pilot commercial operation at 104% power is carried out over three fuel campaigns, with the reactor and other system parameters being monitored and relevant data collected. After this period, a cumulative 104% power operation report is produced for each plant. Rostechnadzor will then assess safety and possibly license commercial operation at the higher power level.

Rosenergoatom is considering the introduction of a 24 month fuel cycle at new nuclear power units. Previously, WWER-1000 reactors operated for 12 months without refuelling, and from 2008 the reactors were all converted to an 18 month fuel cycle. WWER-440s still use a 12 month cycle. To achieve 24 months in new units, the design of WWERs will need to be changed and fuel enrichment would need to be increased from 4–4.5% U-235 to 6–7% in the WWER-TOI design.

The research and development (R&D) Institute of Power Engineering was preparing plans for a 5% uprating of the later Leningrad, Kursk and Smolensk RBMK units. For Leningrad 2–4, fuel enriched to an average of 3% instead of 2.4% would allow a 5% increase in power, and Rostechnadzor authorized trials of the new fuel in Unit 2. Following this, it was to consider authorizing a 5% uprate for long term operation. However, Rosenergoatom in May 2012 flagged problems with ageing of the graphite moderator (most acute at Leningrad 1), questioned proceeding with uprates of older units, and said it would consider derating individual units where problems such as pressure tube distortion were apparent due to graphite swelling. Leningrad 1 would be derated to 80% to prolong its operating life; work to restore its graphite stack and extend its service life was completed late in 2013. Similar work would then be done on all first generation RBMKs, since these are so important economically to Rosenergoatom. However, future RBMK operation might possibly be at reduced capacity of 80% across all units. The successful repair of Leningrad 1 removed the pressure for accelerated replacement of old RBMK units.

On 23 December 2018, at 05:16, the power unit No. 1 of the Kola NPP was connected to the grid after the completion of a large-scale renovation with modernization that lasted 250 days. For the first time in the Russian nuclear power industry, the WWER-440 power unit was commissioned after the renewal of the service life. Power unit No. 1 was commissioned at Kola NPP after modernization and repair. An operation to extend the service life of a WWER-1000 reactor installation was conducted at Balakovo NPP and the first block of the Balakovo NPP carried out a reduction annealing of the metal of the WWER-1000 reactor vessel. The BN-600 reactor resumed operation at Beloyarsk NPP. A unique repair of the turbogenerator No. 1 of the first power unit was carried out at Smolensk NPP.

On 19 June 2018, an acceptance test (complex testing) was successfully completed at power unit No. 4 of the Rostov NPP before commercial operation. The power unit WWER-1000/320 has a capacity of 1000 MW.

On 29 October 2018, the operating organization of the Russian NPPs, Rosenergoatom Concern JSC, entered the power unit No. 1 of the Leningrad NPP-2 into commercial operation. The reactor unit, with a WWER-1200 developed by OKB GIDROPRESS JSC, is operating with a capacity of 1.2 GW.

Rosenergoatom received a Rostekhnadzor licence to provide work in a mode suitable for decommissioning of power unit No. 1 of the Bilibino NPP. Unit No. 1 of the Bilibino NPP has been placed into permanent shutdown, where spent nuclear fuel has been removed to the storage pool. Power units No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 are in operation and provide a reliable supply of electricity to the consumers of the Chaun-Bilibinsky power center, and Bilibino consumers — also with heat and hot water.

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Sources: PRIS database, Rosenergoatom (http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosenergoatom_copy/site_en/).

The latest Federal Target Programme envisages a 25–30% nuclear share in electricity supply by 2030, 45–50% by 2050 and 70–80% by the end of the century. The 10 units now under construction, to be completed by 2030, are listed in Table 7.

TABLE 7. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: WWER-1200 is the reactor portion of the AES-2006 nuclear power plant.

Starting in 2020–2025, it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in the Russian Federation, with much of the fuel being recycled. Fast reactors are projected to provide some 34 GW(e) of capacity by 2050. The principal scheme for innovation in nuclear power for the Russian Federation is based on a new technology platform that envisages full recycling of fuel, from balancing thermal and fast reactors, so that 100 GW(e) of total capacity requires only about 100 t/y from enrichment of tails and natural uranium, with minor actinides being burned. About 100 t/y of fission product wastes will go to a geological repository.

The Federal Target Programme is based on WWER technology, at least until roughly 2030. It highlights the goal of moving to fast neutron reactors and a closed fuel cycle, for which Rosatom proposed two options. The first is to select a fast neutron reactor with lead coolant as the basic technology, and to mobilize all available resources for this exclusively. This is expected to cost RUR 110 billion, mostly drawing from the federal budget. The second option also provides for development of fast neutron reactors, cooled by sodium and lead–bismuth, with the related engineering designs of such reactors and closed fuel cycle technologies to be in place no later than 2014. A detailed design should be developed for the construction of a multipurpose fast neutron research reactor by then also. This second option is designed to attract more funds aside from the federal budget allocation, and is the option favoured by Rosatom.

In February 2010, the Government announced that Rosenergoatom’s investment programme for 2010 amounted to RUR 163.3 billion, of which RUR 53 billion would come from the federal budget. Of the total cost, RUR 101.7 billion is for nuclear plant construction, almost half of which is to come from Rosenergoatom’s funds. It includes the reactors listed in Table 8 as under construction, as well as Leningrad II-2 and the Baltic plant. In March 2010, Rosatom said that it intended to commission three new reactors per year from 2016.

However, early in 2017 the chief executive officer of Rosatom said that the Government would end state support for the construction of new nuclear units in 2020, and so Rosatom had to learn to earn money on its own, primarily via commercial nuclear energy projects in the international market. He said that Rosatom had come from being a consortium of unprofitable, separately run businesses a decade ago to a vertically integrated state corporation with improved strategies and financial performance, thanks in part to a ‘large scale’ programme of state funding. “In this situation … we must learn how to earn money independently,” especially in the world market, he said.

The highly automated Russian power grid is the world’s largest complex for generating, transmitting and distributing electric power, and for controlling these processes on a day to day basis. The power industry in the Russian Federation developed stepwise, by incorporating regional power systems, working in parallel, and forming interregional electric power pools, which merged to form a single power grid. The nation’s power grid started to evolve as soon as the GOELRO plan for national economic development was launched. Russia’s power grid, the main component of the national power industry, is a complex network of power plants and mains, which have the same operating mode and centralized dispatching control. The transition to this form of organization of the power industry made it possible to make the most of power resources and to improve the economics and reliability of the energy supply, for the benefit of both the economy and population.

The control of this immense, synchronously operating system, which spans 7 000 km west to east and over 3 000 km north to south, is a complex engineering task, with no analogues anywhere in the world. Also, in its more than 40 years in operation, the Russian power grid has accumulated a wealth of experience in the reliable and efficient supply of quality energy to users. Of the total of 74 power networks, the Russian power grid comprises 69 power networks. Of the seven integrated power systems (IPSs), six work in parallel as part of the power grid: the Centre, Middle Volga, Urals, Northwest, North Caucasus and Siberia IPSs. The East IPS operates separately from the Siberia IPS. Working in parallel with the Russian power grid are the power systems of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia and Ukraine, and, through the insertion of direct current, the power system of Finland.

Placement of nuclear power plants in the Russian Federation is performed in accordance with Resolution No. 823 of the Government of the Russian Federation of 17 October 2009, on schemes for the long term development of electric power.

Basic principles of the schemes and programmes for long term electric power development are:

• Efficiency;

• Application of new technological solutions;

• Coordination of schemes and programmes of long term development of electric power related technologies;

• Publicity and openness of public investment strategies and solutions.

Territory near active volcanoes and territory at risk of exposure to tsunamis and catastrophic floods must be deemed unfavourable for the placement of NPPs.

Rosatom’s comprehensive offerings include public relations solutions that make it possible to obtain public acceptance of nuclear power, which is viewed as a cornerstone of stability in the nuclear industry around the globe. Rosatom adheres to principles of transparency, raising public awareness of Russian nuclear operations. This approach enables it to secure public consensus (according to a survey conducted in 2013 by the Levada Analytical Centre, 71.5% of Russians support the continued development of nuclear power).

The reprocessing option is the chosen method for dealing with spent reactor fuel with the exception of spent fuel originating from RBMKs, which should be disposed of. Rosatom operates the RT-1 plant in Chelyabinsk for reprocessing fuel from WWER plants. Its capacity for WWER-440 fuel is 400 t HM/a. The construction of a second reprocessing plant (RT-2) at Krasnoyarsk which has a first line design capacity of 800 t HM/a has been postponed indefinitely. Reprocessed uranium is used for RBMK fuel production. Plutonium obtained at RT-1 is temporarily stored on-site in dioxide form. Rosatom operates several wet away from reactor fuel storage facilities at RT-1 and RT-2 and at several NPPs, with a total capacity of about 16 000 t HM/a (www.sibghk.ru).

Fundamental research

• Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow;

• Institute of High Energy Physics, Protvino;

• Institute of Innovation and Thermonuclear Research, Troitsk.

These major nuclear industry research centres carry out extensive fundamental theoretical and experimental investigations into the properties of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, plasma and laser physics, thermonuclear fusion, development of new types of accelerator and reactor technology, and developing equipment and facilities for physical research.

Applied research and development

• The Russian Scientific Centre ‘Kurchatov Institute’, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre ‘Institute of Physics and Power Engineering’, Obninsk;

• The State Scientific Centre ‘All-Russian Inorganic Materials Research Institute’, Moscow;

• The State Scientific Centre Nuclear Reactor Research Institute, Dimitrovgrad;

• Research and Development Institute of Power Engineering, Moscow.

Above are the major scientific centres in the field of nuclear science and technology. Theoretical and experimental research performed at these institutes on nuclear and particle physics, neutron physics, thermophysics, hydraulics, material science and nuclear safety have received strong recognition.

The All-Russian Research Institute for Nuclear Power Plant Operation of Moscow is the scientific centre for Russian nuclear operating organizations. Its principal work is assuring safe operation of first and second generation nuclear power plants.

Major reactor and NSSS design and research

• Experimental Design Bureau ‘Gidropress’, Podolsk;

• Experimental Design Bureau of Machine Building (OKBM), Nizhny Novgorod.

From 2020–2025, it is envisaged that fast neutron power reactors will play an increasing role in Russia, with a large role for recycled fuels.

The fast reactor BN-1200 is being developed by OKBM Afrikantov in Zarechny, partly funded by a federal nuclear technology programme. The BN-1200 will produce 2900 MW(th) (1220 MW(e) gross), has a 60 year design life, simplified refuelling, and burnup of up to 120 GWd/t, with breeding ratio quoted as 1.2 to 1.4. Rosatom’s Scientific and Technical Board reviewed it along with cost estimates in August 2015. A detailed design of the prototype was completed in 2017.

Rosatom cooperates with other countries in many fields of activities, such as:

• Nuclear physics;

• Fundamental research into properties of matter;

• Controlled thermonuclear fusion;

• Physics of semiconductors and high temperature superconductivity;

• Isotopes;

• Technologies of elementary particle accelerators and electrophysical equipment;

• Atomic energy generation and nuclear fuel cycles;

• Radioactive waste management;

• Environmental protection.

Rosatom’s scientists and researchers are engaged in a wide range of studies conducted by the various international centres for nuclear research, including the European Organization for Nuclear Research, the National Accelerator Laboratory and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. The Russian Federation participates in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor quadripartite project. Rosatom scientists and engineers participate actively in both national and international symposia, seminars and conferences. Rosatom is engaged in intensive sharing and exchange of information on a bilateral level and through the International Nuclear Information System. Within Rosatom, there is a special institute (Atominform), merging all information flows of the industry and dealing with the problems associated with protecting Rosatom’s rights to the objects of intellectual property resulting from activities financed by the Ministry, as well as legal aspects of the transfer of these rights to third parties.

Recently, the problems of spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, of NPP safety and of environmental protection have been gaining in importance. The Russian Federation cooperates with the United States Department of Energy through the International Centre of Ecological Safety in the Russian Federation (Rosatom) and in the United States of America (the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory). Cooperation started in 1993, in management of spent nuclear fuel and of radioactive waste and in rehabilitation of contaminated territories in the northwest of the Russian Federation, with France, Norway, Sweden, the United States of America and the European Commission, and these initiatives are still in progress. In 1998, through the Minatom initiative, the Russian Federation began to cooperate with France and Germany to construct a European pressurized water reactor in the Russian Federation. A joint working group was formed, including experts from Minatom, Framatome and Siemens Company. The European Commission, rendering technical assistance on a gratuitous basis within the frameworks of the TACIS Programme, is one of the leading Western partners. In 1998, the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the Russian Federation and the European Union was implemented. Throughout recent years, the Russian Federation has taken part in activities in compliance with the agreement on the International Science and Technology Centre.

From 1994 to 1997, research and development activities to fabricate uranium–plutonium fuel for Canada deuterium–uranium (CANDU) reactors from weapons grade plutonium were carried out in cooperation with Canada. At present, the joint Russian–US efforts are focused on decommissioning of weapons grade plutonium production reactors. In 1999, a draft intergovernmental agreement between the Russian Federation and the Netherlands on cooperation in safe dismantling of nuclear weapons in the Russian Federation and in utilization of removed nuclear powered submarines was elaborated.

By convention, the designing, mounting and commissioning of NPPs and large scale production installations in the territories of the CIS and other countries form an essential part of the international cooperation of Rosatom. Ukraine and Kazakhstan are the Russian Federation’s most active partners. A draft agreement on cooperation in the nuclear fuel cycle was elaborated and coordinated recently with Ukraine. Activities to complete construction and to put into operation the Rovno and the Khmelnitsky NPPs are in progress. The Russian Federation supplies nuclear fuel to Ukraine, and transports spent nuclear fuel out of the country. Russia cooperates with Kazakhstan in production of nuclear fuel and in other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle.

Rosatom cooperates with Bulgaria, China, Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Slovakia and the Syrian Arab Republic in construction and operation of NPPs and large scale production installations. There is also progress in Russian–Japanese relations in the field.

Russia takes part in the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). The objective of INPRO is to support the safe, sustainable, economic and proliferation resistant use of nuclear technology to meet the global energy needs of the 21st century. INPRO provides an open international forum for studying the nuclear power option and associated requirements, and its potential application in IAEA Member States. INPRO helps to make adequate competence available for the development and deployment of innovative nuclear energy systems and helps to assist Member States in the coordination of related collaborative projects.

The Russian Federal Supervision of Nuclear and Radiological Safety (Gosatomnadzor) is the nuclear regulatory body of the Russian Federation, with headquarters in Moscow and seven regional offices throughout the country.

The following regulations determine the procedure for NPP licensing:

1. Regulations on the order of special permission, issued by Gosatomnadzor for examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-12-94.

2. Regulations on arranging and carrying out examination of design and other materials and documents, substantiating safety of nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-13-94.

3. Regulations on the order of issuing of special temporary permissions for designing nuclear and radiologically dangerous installations and works: RD-03-14-94.

The stages of obtaining the temporary permission (licence) for NPP unit operation can be represented in brief:

1. Licence demand (submission of application documents);

2. Gosatomnadzor decision on the demand control;

3. Analysis of substantiating materials for demand;

4. Inspection of the NPP;

5. Conclusion of examination of substantiating materials;

6. Conclusion of NPP inspection;

7. General conclusion of obtaining temporary permission (licence);

8. Licence (temporary permission).