In January 2014, the Government the Republic of Korea announced a long term strategy to determine the direction of its national energy policy until 2035. The second Energy Master Plan aimed at reducing final energy consumption by 13% by 2035, contains six basic policy directions: shift to demand management policies, establishment of distributed power generation system, energy policy harmonizing with the environment and safety, enhancement of energy security, securing stable supply system of each energy source and energy policy reflecting public opinion. The Government revises the Energy Master Plan every five years and expects the third Energy Master Plan with the planning period until 2040 to be unveiled in 2019.

The Government announced in December 2017, the Renewable Energy 2030 Action Plan, which plans to increase the share of renewable energy in power generation to 20% (63.8 GW) by 2030. As part of this plan, specific goals include:

• Supply 95% of total renewable energy capacity additions from solar photovoltaic and wind;

• Planned expansion of capacity installation through large scale projects.

Through the concrete implementation plan to meet the renewable energy target, the Government suggests:

1. Facilitating citizens’ participation in photovoltaic businesses;

2. Introducing a local government led site planning scheme;

3. Promoting large scale projects;

4. Ameliorating the constraints of launching renewable projects through policy improvement;

5. Reducing the current large amount of non-renewable waste use.

Table 1 shows the energy reserves of the Republic of Korea as of the end of 2017.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

	Fossil fuels			Nuclear	Renewable
	Solid	Liquid	Gas	Uranium	Hydro	Other renewables
Total amount in specific units*	1328	0.028 7	0.425	—	0.001 789	0.009 186

Source: Korea Resources Corporation (www.kores.or.kr), Korea National Oil Corporation (www.knoc.co.kr) and Korea Electric Power Corporation (www.kepco.co.kr).

* Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; hydro, renewables: TW.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

	1980	1990	2000	2005	2010	2015	2017	Annual av. growth rate 2000–2017 (%)
Total energy consumption (EJ)*	1.84	3.89	8.09	9.60	11.06	12.01	12.65	2.66
Solids**	0.55	1.01	1.80	2.29	3.23	3.58	3.61	4.18
Liquids	1.12	2.10	4.21	4.28	4.38	4.57	5.00	1.01
Gases	—	0.13	0.79	1.27	1.80	1.83	1.99	5.57
Nuclear	0.04	0.55	1.14	1.54	1.34	1.46	1.32	0.88
Hydro	0.02	0.07	0.06	0.05	0.06	0.05	0.06	0.36
Other renewables	0.11	0.03	0.09	0.17	0.25	0.54	0.66	12.53
Total energy production (EJ)	0.52	0.98	1.37	1.83	1.71	2.09	2.09	2.54
Solids**	0.36	0.32	0.08	0.05	0.04	0.03	0.03	-5.59
Liquids	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Gases	—	—	—	0.02	0.02	0.01	0.01	—
Nuclear	0.04	0.55	1.14	1.54	1.34	1.46	1.32	0.88
Hydro	0.02	0.07	0.06	0.05	0.06	0.05	0.06	0.36
Other renewables	0.11	0.03	0.09	0.17	0.25	0.54	0.66	12.53
Net imports (imports - exports) (EJ)	1.38	3.02	7.20	8.00	9.66	10.35	11.26	2.67

Source: Korea Energy Statistics Information System (www.kesis.net).

* Energy consumption = primary energy consumption + net imports (imports - exports) of secondary energy.

** Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

The principle ministry responsible for developing the electricity policy is the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE). MOTIE works in consultation and close cooperation with the Ministry of Strategy and Finance, six generation companies and the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO). With energy being regarded as a key component of the rapid economic development of the Republic of Korea, the Government has maintained a strong presence in the sector.

MOTIE, either through direct or indirect Government ownership of energy companies, utilities and several energy research institutes, has maintained a high degree of control in all aspects of energy policy development and implementation.

The Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) has the overall responsibility for ensuring nuclear safety through regulatory activities. The NSSC is also a policy maker for the nuclear sector.

MOTIE continues to establish the biennial Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand (also referred to as BPE), which reflects environmental and safety factors in addition to stable power supply and economic efficiency.

The Basic Plan for Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand includes the forecast for power demand over the next 15 years until 2031 and so plans for power generation facilities based on the estimate. 

The latest power generation blueprint projects the peak electricity demand in 2030 at 100.5 GW, down 11% from the forecast of 113.2 GW made in the seventh edition, which used the same methodology, as the economy is expected to grow at a slower pace than it was two years ago. 

The blueprint calls for further reduction in the expected peak demand by 12.3% or 14.2 GW through utilizing technologies of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and introducing new regulations that promote energy efficiency. 

The target reserve margin for 2030 is set at 22% — there will be an excess of 22% of peak demand — and this makes the installed capacity for the year about 122.6 GW. 

Power generation facilities with a combined capacity of 4.3 GW need to be newly added to existing and already planned facilities with a capacity of 118.3 GW. It is intended the new generation facilities will consist of liquefied natural gas (LNG) power stations and pumped storage hydroelectric facilities. 

Between 2017 and 2030, the installed capacity of renewables would increase to 58.5 GW from the current 11.3 GW, with growth mainly coming from solar and wind power. The total capacity of LNG power plants would expand to 47.5 GW from 37.4 GW, and those of coal fired power plants grow to 39.9 GW from 36.8 GW. 

Meanwhile, the installed capacity of nuclear power generation would contract to 20.4 GW from 22.5 GW, as five new reactors would enter operation and 11 ageing reactors would be taken off-line during the period. 

Under the new energy roadmap, natural gas and renewable energy sources will have a greater share in the generation mix in terms of installed capacity. Renewable energy would account 33.7% of the installed capacity in 2030 — up from 9.7% in 2019. The combined capacity of nuclear reactors and coal fired power plants would represent around a third of the mix — down from 50.9%. 

The Government also aims to generate 20% of electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030. The share of natural gas is expected to be 18.8%, while those of coal and nuclear power are 36.1% and 23.9%, respectively. 

Six power generation companies, independent power producers, and community energy systems are producing electric power, and KEPCO transports the electric power it purchased from the Korea Power Exchange through the transmission and distribution network and then goes to sell it to general customers.

Source: Korea Electric Power Corporation (www.kepco.co.kr).

FIG. 1. Structure of the electric power sector.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

	2000	2005	2010	2015	2017	Annual av. growth rate 2000–2017 (%)
Capacity of electrical plants (GW)
Thermal	31.59	40.50	51.07	69.46	78.70	4.94
Hydro	3.15	3.88	5.52	6.47	6.49	4.86
Nuclear	13.72	17.71	17.71	21.71	22.53	3.06
Geothermal	—	—	—	—	—	—
Other renewables	—	0.16	1.76	4.47	9.19	16.51
Total	48.45	62.26	76.07	93.21	116.91	5.34
Electricity production (TW·h)
Thermal	151.83	209.51	314.27	356.95	373.83	5.54
Hydro	5.61	5.19	6.74	5.79	7.00	2.62
Nuclear	108.96	146.78	148.59	164.76	148.43	2.01
Geothermal	—	—	—	—	—	—
Other renewables	—	3.87	5.32	18.01	24.28	32.39
Total*	266.40	364.64	474.92	545.52	553.53	4.42

Source: Korea Electric Power Corporation (www.kepco.co.kr).

* Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

	2000	2010	2015	2017
Electricity consumption (kW·h/capita)	5067	8883	9555	9869
Electricity production/energy production (%)	204.0	249.6	231.1	235.8
Nuclear/total electricity (%)	40.90	31.14	31.20	26.81

The pursuit of peaceful nuclear activities in the Republic of Korea were initiated in 1957 when it became an IAEA Member State. The following year, the Republic of Korea passed its Atomic Energy Law. In 1959, the Office of Atomic Energy was established in conformity with the global trend toward the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

The Republic of Korea has carried out a very ambitious nuclear power programme since the 1970s in parallel with the industrialization policy and has maintained a strong commitment to nuclear power development as an integral part of its national energy policy, aiming to reduce external vulnerability and insure against global fossil fuel shortages.

The localization process of nuclear power technology in the Republic of Korea has been made from design, manufacturing, construction, operation and maintenance, fuel fabrication and building up of a safety regulatory infrastructure in a relatively short period. As part of this trend, a high degree of technological self-reliance in various fields of the nuclear industry has been achieved through the construction of Yonggwang-3 and 4. At present, NPP technology and related fuel cycle technologies are maturing.

The Republic of Korea currently has 24 operational reactors with a net capacity of 23.5 GW(e), which provide 23.67% of the country’s electricity at the end of 2018. Five reactors consisting of an additional 7 GW(e) are under construction. The reactors are located at five sites and all new builds are expected to be at these sites.

The current Government focuses on safety of operating NPPs, decommissioning of nuclear facilities and safe management of spent fuel, under the Energy Transition Policy, which was officially announced in 2017.

Nuclear related activities are planned and carried out by various organizations such as the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT), MOTIE, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) and the NSSC.

MSIT has overall responsibility for nuclear R&D and nuclear international cooperation affairs.

MOTIE is responsible for the construction and operation of NPPs, the nuclear fuel supply and the management of radioactive waste.

MOFA is responsible for the nuclear diplomatic activities including the conclusion of bilateral and multilateral agreement and treaty.

The NSSC is responsible for nuclear safety, security and non-proliferation as a regulatory body.

Source: MSIT.

FIG. 2. Main nuclear related organizations.

Currently, a total gross capacity of 23.5 GW(e) is installed in 24 operating NPPs, comprising 20 pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and 4 CANDU pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs). There are five units under construction. Table 5 shows the status of NPPs as of December 2018.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Reactor Unit	Type	Net Capacity [MW(e)]	Status	Operator	Reactor Supplier	Construction Date	First Criticality Date	First Grid Date	Commercial Date	Shutdown Date	UCF for 2018
HANBIT-1	PWR	995	Operational	KHNP	WH	1981-06-04	1986-01-31	1986-03-05	1986-08-25		62.7
HANBIT-2	PWR	988	Operational	KHNP	WH	1981-12-01	1986-10-15	1986-11-11	1987-06-10		53.5
HANBIT-3	PWR	986	Operational	KHNP	DHICKAEC	1989-12-23	1994-10-13	1994-10-30	1995-03-31		35.5
HANBIT-4	PWR	970	Operational	KHNP	DHICKAEC	1990-05-26	1995-07-07	1995-07-18	1996-01-01		0.0
HANBIT-5	PWR	992	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1997-06-29	2001-11-24	2001-12-19	2002-05-21		83.8
HANBIT-6	PWR	993	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1997-11-20	2002-09-01	2002-09-16	2002-12-24		91.4
HANUL-1	PWR	966	Operational	KHNP	FRAM	1983-01-26	1988-02-25	1988-04-07	1988-09-10		65.8
HANUL-2	PWR	967	Operational	KHNP	FRAM	1983-07-05	1989-02-25	1989-04-14	1989-09-30		59.7
HANUL-3	PWR	997	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1993-07-21	1997-12-21	1998-01-06	1998-08-11		67.2
HANUL-4	PWR	999	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1993-11-01	1998-12-14	1998-12-28	1999-12-31		76.7
HANUL-5	PWR	998	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1999-10-01	2003-11-28	2003-12-18	2004-07-29		80.4
HANUL-6	PWR	997	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2000-09-29	2004-12-16	2005-01-07	2005-04-22		84.4
KORI-2	PWR	640	Operational	KHNP	WH	1977-12-23	1983-04-09	1983-04-22	1983-07-25		48.1
KORI-3	PWR	1011	Operational	KHNP	WH	1979-10-01	1985-01-01	1985-01-22	1985-09-30		63.4
KORI-4	PWR	1012	Operational	KHNP	WH	1980-04-01	1985-10-26	1985-12-31	1986-04-29		71.4
SHIN-KORI-1	PWR	996	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2006-06-16	2010-07-15	2010-08-04	2011-02-28		80.5
SHIN-KORI-2	PWR	996	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2007-06-05	2011-12-27	2012-01-28	2012-07-20		79.2
SHIN-KORI-3	PWR	1416	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2008-10-16	2015-12-29	2016-01-15	2016-12-20		48.6
SHIN-KORI-4	PWR	1340	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2009-08-19	2019-04-08	2019-04-22	2019-08-29		0.0
SHIN-WOLSONG-1	PWR	997	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2007-11-20	2012-01-06	2012-01-27	2012-07-31		80.3
SHIN-WOLSONG-2	PWR	993	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2008-09-23	2015-02-08	2015-02-26	2015-07-24		76.9
WOLSONG-1	PHWR	661	Operational	KHNP	AECL	1977-10-30	1982-11-21	1982-12-31	1983-04-22		0.0
WOLSONG-2	PHWR	611	Operational	KHNP	AECL/DHI	1992-09-25	1997-01-29	1997-04-01	1997-07-01		82.0
WOLSONG-3	PHWR	641	Operational	KHNP	AECL/DHI	1994-03-17	1998-02-19	1998-03-25	1998-07-01		73.2
WOLSONG-4	PHWR	622	Operational	KHNP	AECL/DHI	1994-07-22	1999-04-10	1999-05-21	1999-10-01		83.9
SHIN-HANUL-1	PWR	1340	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2012-07-10
SHIN-HANUL-2	PWR	1340	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2013-06-19
SHIN-KORI-5	PWR	1340	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2017-04-01
SHIN-KORI-6	PWR	1340	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2018-09-20
KORI-1	PWR	576	Permanent Shutdown	KHNP	WH	1972-08-01	1977-06-19	1977-06-26	1978-04-29	2017-06-18

Data source: IAEA - Power Reactor Information System (PRIS).

Note: Table is completely generated from PRIS data to reflect the latest available information and may be more up to date than the text of the report.

Source: Latest available data; PRIS database (www.iaea.org/pris).

^a Date of first major placing of concrete, usually for the base mat of the reactor building completion; Constr. — construction.

^b Date of first connection to the grid.

^c Unit capability factor (UCF) for the latest available year (only applicable to reactors in operation).

2.2.2.1. Plant upgrading and plant life management

2.2.2.2. Continued operation (licence renewal)

According to the Eighth Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand, finalized by MOTIE in December 2017, five APR 1400 units will be constructed by 2024. However, construction of new NPPs and plant lifetime expansion will not be pursued.

TABLE 6. UNDER CONSTRUCTION NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Station/project name	Type	Capacity (MW)	Construction start year	Expected commercial year
Shin Kori-4	PWR	1400	2009	2019
Shin Hanul-1	PWR	1400	2012	2019
Shin Hanul-2	PWR	1400	2013	2020
Shin Kori-5	PWR	1400	2017	2023
Shin Kori-6	PWR	1400	2017	2024

The APR1400 is a Generation III light water reactor (LWR) with a capacity of 1400 MW(e), evolved from the OPR1000. Unlike the OPR1000 with a two train active safety system, the APR1400 has a four train active safety system. It is expected to be safer than the OPR1000. The standard design of the APR1400 was domestically certifiedin May 2002. Shin Kori-3 and 4 is the first plant to implement APR1400. Shin Kori-3 has been in commercial operation since December 2016, achieving one cycle trouble free. Following this, Shin Kori-4 is scheduled to start commercial operation in September 2019.

The APR1400 design was certified by European Utility Requirements in November 2017. The EU-APR standard design is the APR1400 designed to European safety standards.

In 1985, the Government made the landmark decision to implement a national self-reliance policy and allocated the roles and duties among the domestic nuclear organizations to streamline and nationalize the nuclear power industry (see Fig. 3).

Note: Total project management — Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Company (KHNP); architectural engineering and nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) design — Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) Engineering & Construction Company (KOPCO E&C); nuclear fuel design and fabrication: KEPCO Nuclear Fuel (KEPCO NF); R&D: Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI); NSSS, turbine and generator manufacturing — Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction; Safety regulations — Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) and Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS).

FIG. 3. Structure of the nuclear power industry.

Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction has taken part in plant manufacturing through its capacity to supply heavy industrial construction equipment and machinery. KEPCO Engineering & Construction Company (KEPCO E&C) was established in 1975 to foster self-reliance in power technologies, particularly in nuclear power engineering for PWRs. KEPCO E&C has prime responsibility for architectural engineering. KEPCO Nuclear Fuel (KEPCO NF) was established in November 1982 by joint investment of KEPCO and the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) to localize the nuclear fuel fabrication for PWRs and PHWRs. The NSSC and the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) conduct safety reviews and inspections of nuclear facilities or radiation facilities. The technological self-reliance strategy has been applied since construction of HANBIT-3 and 4. Domestic nuclear industries became the projects’ prime contractors under the conditions of technology support, guidance and then transfer from foreign subcontractors.

KHNP works to secure a reasonable sales price of electricity and reduce the cost of production in order to maximize retained earnings which can be used for future capital expenditure. To acquire additional funding, in the short term, KHNP is issuing corporate bonds with diversified maturities to attract national and international investors.

In the long term, KHNP is considering diverse arrangements such as equity financing in addition to current debt financing to maintain financial soundness. KHNP is also managing financial risks in order to reduce and eliminate various financial risks to acceptable levels in compliance with policies and procedures.

According to the Eighth Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand, which was finalized by MOTIE in December 2017, there will be no additional transmission lines for NPPs to the current grid.

TABLE 7. LIST OF SELECTED NPPs SITES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Station	Source of cooling waterooling Water	Operation statustatus	Transport infrastructureInfrastructure	Approval statusStatus
Kori-1	Sea water	Permanent shutdown	Wharf Main access road	Operating licenceLicense
Kori-2	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Kori-3	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Kori-4	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Shin Kori-1	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Shin Kori-2	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Shin Kori-3	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Shin Kori-4	Sea water	Under constructiononstruction	Wharf Main access road	Construction permit
Shin Kori-5	Sea water	Under construction	Wharf Main access road	Construction permit
Shin Kori-6	Sea water	Under construction	Wharf Main access road	Construction permit
Hanbit-1 (Yonggwang-1)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanbit-2 (Yonggwang-2)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanbit-3 (Yonggwang-3)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanbit-4 (Yonggwang-4)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanbit-5 (Yonggwang-5)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanbit-6 (Yonggwang-6)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Wolsong-1	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Wolsong-2	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Wolsong-3	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Wolsong-4	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Shin Wolsong-1	Sea water	Operational	Main access road	Operating licence
Shin Wolsong-2	Sea water	Operational	Main access road	Operating licence
Hanul-1 (Ulchin-1)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanul-2 (Ulchin-2)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanul-3 (Ulchin-3)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanul-4 (Ulchin-4)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanul-5 (Ulchin-5)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating licence
Hanul-6 (Ulchin-6)	Sea water	Operational	Wharf Main access road	Operating permitPermits
Shin Hanul-1 (Shin Ulchin-1)	Sea water	Under construction	Main access road	Construction permit
Shin Hanul-2 (Shin Ulchin-2)	Sea water	Under construction	Main access road	Construction permit

In order to enhance public acceptance, KHNP puts the utmost effort in various activities in local support business, conflict management and social contribution works. Every year, a survey of social contribution works is carried out among local residents around NPPs. Criteria of survey are as follows; contribution in local economy, satisfaction in local cooperation, ecology engineering, public supports in nuclear use, safety credibility and information release confidence. Results of the survey is used as reference for policy making in continued operation of NPPs and the introduction of new NPPs.

MSIT is responsible for formulation and implementation of policies on nuclear R&D, human resource development (HRD) and international cooperation, including nuclear energy promotion and radiation technology development.

Nuclear R&D related agencies under MSIT are KAERI and the Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences (KIRAMS). KAERI carries out a wide range of nuclear research and experiment on such areas as nuclear reactor, nuclear fuel cycle, radioactive waste management, nuclear safety, radiation and radioisotope applications, and basic and applied research. KIRAMS focuses research on medical utilization of radiation and radioisotope based on radiation treatment, nuclear medicine, radiological life science, medical engineering and bioengineering technology.

In 1997, the Government established the Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP), which includes the national policy on nuclear energy utilization and promotion and its sectoral tasks, according to the Nuclear Energy Promotion Act. As a part of the plan, a national nuclear R&D plan has been formulated every five years since 1997 to take into account the major changes in R&D and technological progress. The national nuclear R&D plan from 2017 to 2021 was set up with the vision of the advancement on nuclear technology development for reassuring people and the goal of nuclear safety enhancement and core technology completion. It focuses on five research fields: (i) nuclear safety; (ii) radioactive waste management; (iii) advanced reactors and fuel; (iv) application of radiation and radioisotopes; and (v) fundamental technologies. A technology innovation project for operating NPPs has also been developed for the nuclear industry.

Under the Energy Transition Policy of the new Government in 2017, the relative proportion of nuclear power is to be gradually scaled down and the use of renewable energy expanded in the long term. Future nuclear technology development strategy was also established to support for the R&D part of the Energy Transition Policy and expand the socioeconomic application of nuclear technology capability by MSIT at the end of 2017. Five specific R&D strategies were suggested for successful achievement: (i) secure plant safety and decommissioning technology; (ii) expand the use of nuclear and radiation technology; (iii) promote overseas export; (iv) secure new future engine sources such as fusion energy; and (v) commercialize nuclear technology.

As a part of follow-up measures of this future nuclear technology development strategy, MSIT set up a strategy for the strengthening of future nuclear safety capabilities at the end of 2018.

Based on this change of direction, the strategy for the strengthening of future nuclear safety capabilities promotes three development strategies: maximization of the safe operation of NPPs for the next 60 years; expanded utilization of safety based technology capability; and securing and spreading innovative capability of future nuclear safety technology.

The Republic of Korea has signed nuclear cooperative agreements with 29 States, holding joint standing committees with the United States of America, France, the Russian Federation, China, India and Saudi Arabia on a regular basis, annually or once every two years. The two main purposes of bilateral cooperation are the advancement of nuclear technology by securing specific technologies and the establishment of foundation on overseas promotion by expanding technical exchanges in a long term basis. The main cooperative areas are nuclear R&D, safety, safeguards and emergency preparedness. Table 8 shows the current status of joint standing committees with six States.

TABLE 8. JOINT STANDING COMMITTEES

	Joint standing committee	Time and place
United States of America	37th Meeting of ROK–US Joint Standing Committee on Nuclear Energy Cooperation	5–7 Dec. 2018 Seoul
France	23th Korea–France Joint Coordinating Committee on Nuclear Energy	3–4 Jul. 2018 Paris
Russian Federation	19th Joint Coordinating Committee on Atomic Energy Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Korea	3–4 Jun. 2019 Seoul
China	13th Meeting of ROK–PRC Joint Committee on Nuclear Energy	27 May 2016 Beijing
India	3rd Meeting of the Republic of India–the Republic of Korea Nuclear Cooperation Committee	20–21 Dec. 2016 Mumbai
Saudi Arabia	3rd Korea–Saudi Arabia Joint Nuclear Committee	13–14 May 2019 Riyadh

On multilateral level, the Republic of Korea actively participates in international cooperation with the IAEA, the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD/NEA) and other international cooperative frameworks including Generation IV International Forum (GIF) and the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC).

The Republic of Korea’s status changed from a recipient to a donor State for IAEA’s technical cooperation programme in 2010. As a longstanding contributor to a regional cooperative agreement (RCA), the Republic of Korea plays a pivotal role in the field of nuclear medicine and radiotherapy. It supports IAEA activities in nuclear application such as financial contribution to the ReNuAL+ and operation of IAEA collaborating centres, the Advanced Radiation Technology Institute (part of KAERI) and KINS. In relation to IAEA activities in nuclear energy, the Republic of Korea has actively participated in the field of research reactor and the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO). It has supported the Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review for Research Reactors (INIR-RR) and offered high density low enriched uranium fuels to accelerate the IAEA’s efforts for high enriched uranium minimization. Under the framework of INPRO, the Republic of Korea has actively participated in the collaborative project, Proliferation Resistance and Safeguardability Assessment Tools (PROSA) and dialogue forums where knowledge and experience of various nuclear energy issues are shared among Member States, and it continues to serve as a reliable member in the IAEA Director General’s advisory groups and technical working groups.

The Republic of Korea has been an active member of the OECD/NEA activities since 1994, which range from contributing to joint research activities, such as the ATLAS project, which aims to provide experimental data for resolving key LWR thermalhydraulic safety issues following the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident, to joining the international discussion within the framework of the OECD/NEA. As one of the proactive members, the Republic of Korea actively engages in new joint projects to deal with emerging cross-cutting issues such as decommissioning nuclear facilities, radioactive waste management and knowledge management.

The Republic of Korea has also participated in the GIF since the first meeting in 2000, carrying out joint development of the next generation nuclear energy systems such as sodium cooled fast reactors and very high temperature reactors. In 2016, the GIF Policy Group recognized the representative of the Republic of Korea as a vice chair whose duty is to promote research collaboration among the GIF members and observer organizations.

Since 2010, the Republic of Korea has also contributed to IFNEC activities exploring multilateral approaches for promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy. It has shared its experiences of developing nuclear technology system and its applications with diverse members at every subgroup meeting within the framework, including the Nuclear Supplier and Customer Countries Engagement Group.



2.10.1.1. On-line

2.10.1.2. Off-line

2.10.1.3. Media

KEIA operates a work experience programme where middle school students can participate in lectures on career paths in energy industry including nuclear energy and renewables.

KEIA also runs an exhibition hall called ‘happy i’, where children can learn about different energy sources, including nuclear energy, while playing with dedicated displays.

Activities regarding radiological emergency preparedness are based on the Act on Physical Protection and Radiological Emergency (APPRE), which stipulates the system of managing radiological emergency, as well as the Framework Act on Civil Defense and the Basic Act of Disasters and Safety Control, which stipulate the system of national response against disasters of various kinds. The APPRE, legislated in May 2003 and in force in February 2004, stipulates overall radiological emergency management affairs including prevention of, preparedness for, and response to, radiological emergencies, radiological emergency medical treatment and international cooperation.

Pursuant to APPRE, the NSSC formulates the National Radiological Emergency Plan every five years, which is interlinked with the Basic Plan for National Safety Management established based on the Basic Act of Disasters and Safety Control. Each year, the NSSC prepares the National Radiological Preparedness Plan, which is an annual implementation plan for radiological preparedness, and local governments with relevant jurisdiction over all or a part of an emergency planning zone (EPZ) make their own radiological preparedness plan every year in accordance with the Basic Plan for National Safety Management and the National Radiological Preparedness Plan. The nuclear licensee also establishes a radiological emergency plan and obtains approval of its plan from the NSSC for operation.

APPRE defines nuclear facilities as the following:

• Nuclear power reactor;

• Nuclear reactor for research;

• Nuclear fuel cycling facility;

• Storage/processing/disposal facility for radioactive waste;

• Utilization facility for nuclear material;

• Other facilities related to the use of nuclear energy and those which obtain a construction permit and operating licence of the nuclear facilities as nuclear licensee.

Hence, nuclear licensees such as operators of NPPs and facilities related to spent fuel and radioactive waste are required to perform emergency response activities in case of radiation emergency or disasters in accordance with the radiological emergency plan approved by the rules and requirements mentioned above.

The NSSC carries out an inspection on the licensee’s duties, facilities and equipment to respond to radiological disaster, radiological emergency education and radiological emergency exercise per the NSSC Notice Regulation on Inspection for Radiological Emergency of Nuclear Licensee.

In order to carry out effective resident protective measures based on their distance from the nuclear installations, the APPRE was revised in May 2014 to divide the radiation EPZ into a precautionary action zone (PAZ) and an urgent action planning zone (UPZ), based on IAEA safety standards. With the power reactor and related facilities as the centre, the PAZ has a radius of 3–5 km and the UPZ a radius of 20–30 km. Subordinate statutes were also revised to set the EPZ, taking regional characteristics such as roads and topography into consideration.

2.11.2.1. Radiological emergency response regime

2.11.2.2. Protective measures

The operator of nuclear installations periodically conduct repeated training and exercises for emergency personnel to qualify them by providing thorough knowledge of emergency duties. The International Nuclear Safety School of KINS, the Nuclear Training Center of KAERI and the Human Resource Development Institute of KHNP operate training courses on emergency preparedness for personnel involved in an emergency response.

According to the APPRE, radiological emergency training is comprehensively managed at a national level. In that sense, KINS has conducted the regulatory inspection of radiological emergency training programmes in radiological emergency educational institutes. To support the implementation of comprehensive and systematic radiological emergency training, the NSSC Notice on Education for Radiological Emergency Preparedness specifies the designation and notification of radiological emergency staff, establishment of training programmes, method of training and other necessary details.

After the expansion of the EPZ in May 2014 in accordance with the revised APPRE, the NSSC pushed forward its follow-up measures by revising Enforcement Decree in November 2014, in which the joint exercise of radiological preparedness organized by local governments take place by NPP sites once every two years instead of once in four years and intensive exercises focusing on resident protection are to be introduced. Besides, emergency preparedness exercise has been further strengthened by initiating a massive combined exercise participated by central government once a year instead of once every five years. Emergency exercises are held, in which on-site and off-site emergency preparedness organizations must participate, as follows:

1. Unified exercises, in which the emergency organizations of nuclear installations, off-site emergency organizations, and central and local governments are to participate, are held by the NSSC on a national level once every year.

2. Integrated emergency exercises, in which all on-site and off-site emergency organizations are to participate, are held, led by local governments, at the nuclear installation site once every two years.

3. Intensive exercises, in which local governments are to participate, are held for specific fields of resident protective measures such as traffic control, dissemination of situation to the residents, sheltering and evacuation, distribution of thyroid protection medicine, operation of aid stations, environmental radiation monitoring and radiological emergency medical treatment, among other things, once every year.

4. On-site emergency exercises, in which all emergency units in nuclear power stations of two units are to participate, are held every year.

5. Drills, in which each emergency unit in a nuclear installation are to participate, are held every quarter.

6. Newly constructed nuclear installations, an initial exercise is held to demonstrate the ability of emergency response before the rated thermal output reaches 5%.