France’s energy policy is defined under a regulatory framework set by the ETGGA, passed in August 2015. This law is associated with a multiannual energy plan which sets the priorities and the means to fulfil the goals of the act, and is related to the national low carbon strategy, which outlines the path to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and to transition to a low carbon economy.

The main priority of this adopted transition is to work towards a more efficient energy system to tackle climate change and reinforce energy independence, all while striving for a better balance in the energy mix, creation of jobs, generation of business growth, protection of human health and the environment, as well as ensuring access to affordable energy for the whole population and for businesses.

The main policy objectives of the act include the following:

1. Foster the emergence of a competitive and attractive economy for industrial sectors that contribute to green growth;

2. Ensure energy supply and reduce dependence on fossil fuel imports;

3. Maintain a competitive energy price for companies and residential consumers;

4. Protect human health and the environment by reducing greenhouse effects, industrial risks and air pollution, as well as maintaining high standards of nuclear safety;

5. Ensure social awareness and land integration to provide sustainable energy access for every household;

6. Tackle fuel poverty;

7. Support the creation of the European Energy Union to build a decarbonized economy, while coordinating national energy policies.

The act also sets quantitative targets for the aforementioned energy policy:

1. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40% in 2030 compared to 1990.

2. Reduce total energy consumption by 50% in 2050 compared to 2012.

3. Reduce the use of fossil fuels by 30% in 2030 compared to 2012.

4. Increase the share of renewable energy sources to 23% and 32% of total energy consumption, respectively, in 2020 and 2030. Renewable energies must reach 40% of electricity generation by 2030.

5. Multiply by 5 the heat quantity generated by renewable and recovery sources by 2030.

6. Reduce the share of nuclear energy in electricity generation to 50% by 2035.

7. Cap the nuclear capacity at its current level of 63.2 GW(e).

In order to meet objectives set in the act, the Government published a draft of the MEP 2019–2028 in January 2019. This document sets out the Government’s strategic priorities in terms of energy policy over the next 8 years. The MEP also covers all aspects of energy policy (demand, renewable energy, security of supply, infrastructures, etc.) and all forms of energy (including electricity). The main goals of the new plan are to:

1. Increase the installed electricity generation capacity from renewable sources by over 50% compared to 2012 and increase renewable heat generation between 40 and 60% compared to their respective 2017 and 2016 levels;

2. Reduce the total energy consumption by 7% in 2023 compared with 2012, and reduce the primary consumption of fossil fuels by 20% in 2023 compared with 2012;

3. Put 1.2 million electric and hybrid vehicles on the road by 2023;

4. Develop the flexibility of the power system by launching hydroelectric storage projects and developing demand response capacities;

5. Prepare for the closing of all coal fired plants by 2022;

6. Maintain high reliability standards for electricity and gas, while reducing the use of fossil fuels.

Concerning the evolution of installed nuclear capacity in France, the Council of Ministers announced that the reduction of the nuclear share in electricity production will be difficult to achieve by 2025 without resorting to new fossil fuel power plants, which would not respect France’s commitments towards climate change. However, the Government of France is still committed to diversifying the electricity mix by developing renewable energies and confirmed in the 2019 draft MEP its ambition to reduce the share of nuclear energy to 50% in 2035.

Table 1 shows France’s estimated available energy.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

* Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: metric tonnes. n.a.: data not applicable.

Source: Panorama Energies — Climate 2016 (Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition), Chiffres clés de l’énergie 2016, Bilan électrique français 2018 (RTE), World Energy Council.

France has deposits of various metals and few fossil fuel resources. Owing to high recovery costs, the generation of fossil fuels has decreased to a low level and is not expected to provide a significant share of the country’s energy supply in the future. Most hydropower resources are already being used at near maximum capacity. Therefore, France’s energy policy sets a high emphasis on improving energy independence through the development of energy efficiency initiatives and domestic generation technologies, including nuclear power, alternative energies and renewables, in order to alleviate vulnerability to the volatility of international fossil fuel markets and to meet the commitments set forth by the Paris Climate Agreement.

Table 2 provides statistical data on energy and electricity supply and demand between 1971 and 2018. It illustrates the long-term increase of nuclear power in primary electricity generation to improve France’s energy independence. Since 1973, domestic primary energy consumption has undergone a regular increase, but also has recently decreased from 2010; domestic generation accounts for some 50% of that consumption. Yet, overall the energy balance has improved over the past two decades, mainly due to the rise of electricity exports.

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

* Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import-Export) of secondary energy.

** Solid fuels include coal, lignite.

Source: Bilan énergétique de la France métropolitaine 2017, données provisoires (Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition).

During the post-World War II reconstruction period, France’s economic and social development relied mainly on the deployment of energy intensive industries. At that time, rapidly increasing energy needs were partially met by domestic coal and hydropower resources. However, as France’s domestic fossil fuel resources were limited and costly, the country was heavily reliant on imports for its energy supply. By 1973, imports covered more than 75% of the national energy consumption, compared to 38% in 1960. After the 1970s oil crisis, it was determined that the country needed greater energy independence. Similarly, the implementation of a large nuclear power programme became a major element of France’s energy policy, including energy saving measures, efficiency improvement and research and development (R&D) in the field of renewable energies. The share of nuclear power in the primary energy supply increased from less than 2% in the late 1970s to about 30% in the mid-1990s, rising to 42% in 2010.

The main macroeconomic impacts of France’s energy policy regarding the nuclear sector are: low GHG emissions, drastic improvement in the energy trade balance, stabilization of domestic energy prices at lower levels, increased competitiveness of French companies in international markets and deployment of a nuclear industry sector covering reactor construction and the whole fuel cycle. The replacement of fossil fuel power by nuclear energy and more recently by renewables production for electricity generation resulted in a drastic reduction of atmospheric emissions from the energy sector.

The General Directorate for Energy and Climate (DGEC), under the Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition (MTES), is in charge of implementing the Government policy on energy within the framework of the European directives.

An Advisory Energy Council (Conseil supérieur de l’énergie) is consulted on draft regulations in the energy sector, in order to enable in-depth exchanges between DGEC and stakeholders.

The national regulatory authority is CRE (Commission de régulation de l’énergie). CRE guarantees equal access to the gas and power networks to all market players, so as to promote competition. It monitors the activities of gas and electricity system operators and provides for the economic regulation of this monopoly, also defining transportation and distribution tariffs. It monitors electricity and gas market functions and competition on the retail market, thus contributing to the protection of final consumers and end users.

The transmission system operator RTE (Réseau de transport de l’électricité) is in charge of ensuring the generation and consumption balance of the grid, operating the power system, and maintaining and developing the public power transmission network. A 10 year plan defining the development of the electric grid is established each year by RTE and submitted to CRE. RTE is also in charge of publishing a yearly report assessing the generation adequacy of the power system (with respect to the reliability standard defined by the MEP). RTE was a fully owned subsidiary of Électricité de France (EDF) until 2017, when 29.9% of its capital was sold to Caisse des dépôts and 20% to CNP Assurances.

The distribution system operators include Enedis (EDF subsidiary) for 95% of the territory of France, with local distribution companies overseeing the remaining 5%. Distribution networks belong to local authorities and are operated under a concession regime.

Created in 2006, the Nuclear Safety Authority (Autorité de sűreté nucléaire — ASN) is an independent administrative authority in charge of ensuring the control of nuclear safety, radioprotection, transparency and information relations with citizens.

More information on the legal framework of France’s power system can be found on Legifrance (Energy Code).

After a considerable increase of electricity generation since the 1970s, generation levels remain steady, at around 550 TWh per year. France’s electricity generation has very low CO₂ emissions, in large part due to its nuclear fleet and development of renewable energies. In December 2018, installed capacities amounted to 133 GW in total (47.4% nuclear, 38.7% renewable energies, 13.9% fossil fuel fired plants). The installed capacity of renewable units is steadily growing (in particular, solar, wind and biomass) as a result of implemented support schemes. The fossil fuel fired fleet is decreasing, owing to economic conditions and environmental policies. The nuclear fleet has remained unchanged since the start of commercial operation of the last reactor in 2002 (Civaux-2). A new reactor is under construction (Flamanville-3), and should replace an equivalent nuclear capacity, since the ETGGA introduced a ceiling for nuclear capacity.

Following years of steady increase in electricity consumption, domestic consumption levels have also stabilized. France’s electricity consumption is characterized by its high thermosensitivity, which leads to peak loads in winter and possible risks for the security of supply. In January 2017, France implemented a capacity mechanism, creating an obligation for suppliers to maintain a generation capacity corresponding to their consumers’ portfolio and aiming at ensuring compliance with France’s reliability standard.

EDF is the main operator for electricity generation and supply. It operates all nuclear power plants and a significant part of the fossil fuel fired and hydropower plants, as well as other renewable capacities. The other main producers are Engie, CNR and Uniper.

France’s transmission grid is comprised of 105 857 km of power lines.

Table 3 shows the history of electricity generation and Table 4 the energy related ratios. Currently, about 90% of France’s electricity comes from nuclear and renewable sources, while the remaining 10% mainly comes from fossil fuels. Electricity demand remains stable with GDP increases and energy efficiency.

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

Note: n.a.: data not applicable.

* Latest available data.

** Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Source: RTE (bilan électrique 2018).

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

Note: n.a.: data not applicable.

* Latest available data.

**Net import/Total energy consumption.

Source: IEA, Enerdata, Bilan énergétique de la France métropolitaine 2017, données provisoires (Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition).

Historically, the development of nuclear power is categorized into four phases. First, during the 1960s, in line with the overall target of industrial independence and domestic technological development, various reactor designs were promoted (mainly natural uranium graphite gas cooled reactors and fast breeders). However, a pressurized water reactor (PWR) unit (Chooz-A) was built jointly with a Belgian consortium and a heavy water reactor was built in Brittany (Brennilis).

In the late 1960s, international developments in the nuclear industry led to the recognition that French reactor designs could not compete with expanding light water reactor (LWR) technologies. In 1969, the decision was made to build LWRs under licence, while restructuring domestic nuclear industries to improve international competitiveness. Subsequently, the Government of France planned a construction programme of one or two PWRs per year.

In the second phase, from 1974 to 1981, a design by the then United States firm Westinghouse was emphasized for the development of a new French standard. At this time, the nuclear programme was revved up during the oil crisis in the 1970s. Over time, the unit capacity of France’s reactors increased from 900 MW(e) to 1300 MW(e) and later to 1450 MW(e). France developed and implemented, in parallel with the nuclear power plant programme, a strong domestic fuel cycle industry, built upon the infrastructure originally established by the Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA).

In the third phase, in 1981, Framatome terminated its licence with Westinghouse and negotiated a new agreement, giving greater autonomy to the domestic industry. Framatome developed a wide range of servicing expertise and capabilities in reactor operation and maintenance services. In the same year, France adapted its energy policy to lower than expected economic growth, alongside frequent overcapacity in the national electricity supply system. The achievement of the 1450 MW(e) N4 model was a landmark for the design of a totally autonomous French reactor.

In the fourth phase, a new period started in 2000 when Framatome merged its nuclear activities with those of Siemens (Germany). This resulted in Framatome Advanced Nuclear Power, which was integrated into the AREVA group and subsequently renamed AREVA NP (Nuclear Power); its shares were held by AREVA (66%) and Siemens (34%). Between 2000 and 2010, the construction of four 1600 MW EPRs, based on a design by AREVA NP, was launched in Olkiluoto (Finland), Taishan (China) and Flamanville (France). Despite those projects, the French nuclear industry, and especially the leading companies EDF and AREVA, have encountered some challenges in the context of falling electricity prices and a slumping uranium market following the 2011 Fukushima accident.

In June 2015, key decisions were made to give new momentum to the French nuclear industry:

1. EDF and AREVA were to join forces for reactor design in a dedicated company, with EDF becoming the industrial leader in this area.

2. Fuel cycle activities would become the primary activities for AREVA.

3. AREVA would be recapitalized by the Government of France.

4. A stringent performance plan would be launched for better management of AREVA and its employees.

The European Commission approved the recapitalization of AREVA NewCo by the Government of France in January 2017, in addition to the takeover of AREVA NP by EDF in May 2017.

In July 2017, the Government of France completed the purchase of 2 billion euros worth of additional shares in AREVA S.A., and an additional 2.5 billion euros of equity in NewCo, the company’s fuel cycle business. New NP, AREVA’s reactor business, was sold to French state-controlled utility EDF. Liabilities from completing Olkiluoto-3 and issues surrounding the fabrication of reactor materials remained with AREVA S.A. for better management of both questions.

In October 2017, the ASN gave its final decision regarding the carbon migration issue on the Flamanville reactor vessel:

• The pressure vessel, including its closure head, is qualified for the plant startup.

• EDF will have to implement additional periodic inspections to ensure that no flaws appear subsequently.

• The closure head will have to be changed by the end of 2024.

With this green light from the ASN, the restructuring process continued and, in December 2017, EDF became the majority shareholder of New NP, with 75.5% of the capital, while Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Assystem hold stakes of 19.5% and 5%, respectively. In January 2018, New NP announced that it had officially changed its name back to Framatome, the name previously held by the French reactor company prior to its merger with Cogema in 2001. The newly ‘re-created’ Framatome includes most of the reactor business formerly owned by AREVA except for the contracts for the Olkiluoto EPR in Finland and certain contracts related to the Le Creusot forge facility. The new company also includes the former AREVA’s fuel fabrication business.

In addition, in January 2018, NewCo was renamed Orano and in February 2018, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Japan Nuclear Fuel Ltd officially became shareholders of Orano (each having a stake of 5%).

Roles and responsibilities in the nuclear power programme organizational chart are as follows:

1. Governmental authorities:

• MTES;

• DGEC;

• General Directorate for Risk Prevention (DGPR);

• Other ministries (Foreign Affairs, Economy and Defense);

• Independent nuclear authority: ASN.

2. Expert institution/technical support organization: Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN);

3. Research and development: CEA;

4. Operator of nuclear power plants: EDF;

5. Designer and supplier of nuclear steam supply systems and nuclear equipment, services and fuel: Framatome;

6. Fuel cycle industry, including engineering and services: Orano Cycle;

7. Mining: Orano Mining;

8. Conversion: Philippe Coste;

9. Enrichment: Georges Besse II;

10. Fuel manufacturing: Framatome (uranium oxide — Franco-Belgian Fuel Fabrication Company), Orano cycle (mixed oxide (MOX) — Melox);

11. Reprocessing and nuclear packaging, transportation and interim storage: Orano;

12. Decommissioning, dismantling and nuclear waste management: Orano Cycle;

13. Radioactive waste management (R&D and disposal): National Radioactive Waste Management Agency (ANDRA).

Nuclear power in France’s electricity supply system amounts to 63 130 MW(e). It consists of 58 PWRs (34 reactors at 900 MW(e), 20 reactors at 1300 MW(e), and 4 reactors at 1450 MW(e)) (Fig. 1 and Table 5). One EPR reactor is also under construction at the Flamanville site for which EDF is the project engineering leader and operator. All EDF NPPs undergo a systematic feedback process and a comprehensive periodic safety reassessment process every ten years, under the scrutiny of the ASN. This enables assessment of compliance with the licensing basis and up to date safety standards and implementation of improvements, if necessary, in order to sustain the EDF’s long term operation programme. After the Fukushima Daiichi accident, a complementary safety assessment was performed, which confirmed current levels of safety with adequate margins regarding external hazards (earthquake, flooding, etc.) and resulted in additional provisions to cope with extreme hazards (fast task force, implementation of a hardened safety core, etc.). This process is described in detail in the reports presented at the meetings of the Nuclear Safety Convention (published on the ASN web site). In 2018, nuclear power plants accounted for 393.2 TWh, or over 71% of total electricity generation in France. France is the world’s second largest nuclear power producer, with an average availability rate amounting to about 79.5% (top ten between 91 and 99.5%).

FIG. 1. Map of France’s nuclear facilities (source: EDF, CEA).

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: n.a.: data not applicable.

Source: EDF and IAEA Power Reactor Information System (PRIS).

Completed studies and work regarding nuclear power plants’ technical capacities provide assurance of their capability to operate for at least 50 years; this is a figure also confirmed by an international benchmark, such as those set by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). At the end of its fourth 10 year inspection, the 900 MW PWR series (except for Fessenheim) will have reached a level of safety that is both as close as possible to the EPR safety level and one of the highest worldwide. Extending the nuclear reactors’ operating lifetimes also offers higher profitability, with nuclear power costs remaining competitive in relation to other types of power generation (see Section 2.3.3).

Extending the lifetime of current NPPs will be discussed further in the coming years.

In December 2018, 33 basic nuclear installations (BNIs) of all types (power plants, research reactors, laboratories, fuel reprocessing installations, waste treatment facilities, etc.) were already shut down or undergoing decommissioning in France:

• 21 BNIs had obtained a decommissioning decree (among which are included the 9 EDF first generation NPPs already shut down).

• 11 decommissioning files were instructed by the regulator and its technical support.

• 4 BNIs were waiting for delicensing.

In France, the immediate decommissioning strategy remains the major national principle of the nuclear decommissioning and waste treatment policy. This principle is set by Article L.593-25 of the Environmental Code. It is enshrined and strengthened by several decrees and guides which constitute the legal regulatory framework of nuclear decommissioning operations being conducted in France:

• The 2006 Act on Transparency and Security in the Nuclear Field No. 2006-686, dated 13 June 2006, is now codified in the Environmental Code.

• The 2015 Act on the Energy Transition No. 2015-992, dated 17 August 2015, is now codified in the Environmental Code.

• The decommissioning process regulated by decree No. 2007-1557 dated 2 November 2007 was codified in the Environmental Code on 1 April 2019. It requires that the permanent shutdown and the decommissioning be licensed by a specific decree.

A set of guides reinforces France’s legal and regulatory framework on decommissioning:

• Guide No. 6, on decommissioning, and the associated appendix, gives the list of documents to be provided by the operator for decommissioning/dismantling throughout the life cycle of the installation (updates of the decommissioning plan in particular).

• Guide No. 14, is about clean-up methodology for structures of basic nuclear installations.

• Guide No. 23, on the establishment of and changes to the waste zoning plan provides the prerequisites for clean-up operations for BNI. The waste zoning plan of the facility separates areas into those in which waste products that are contaminated or activated may be found and waste zones that are non-radioactive, called ‘conventional’.

• Guide No. 24, on the management of polluted soils by BNI activities, has been published to support the principle that the operator must go as far as reasonably possible with the methods and remediation techniques under acceptable economic conditions.

All stakeholders (operators, regulators, private entities/counterparts) are also asked to contribute and be involved in defining the national policy throughout the delivery of the French National Plan for the Management of Radioactive Materials and Waste (PNGMDR). The latest version of this policy was published February 2017.

Based on France’s ongoing decommissioning programme to shut down nuclear plants, as well as waste production at operating nuclear facilities, the PNGMDR is revised every three years. It serves to review existing management procedures for radioactive materials and waste, to identify the foreseeable needs for storage and disposal facilities, specify the necessary capacity of these facilities and the storage durations, and determine objectives to be met for radioactive waste for which there is as yet no final management solution.

In addition to this general description of France’s regulations related to decommissioning and waste management, other considerations include the following:

• Every three years, all nuclear operators in France must update and submit their respective decommissioning strategies and waste management policies to the regulator.

• Nuclear operators are responsible for financing the management of their waste and the dismantling of their nuclear installations. To ensure a satisfactory safety level of decommissioning operations considering the sustainable management of radioactive materials and waste as prescribed in the 2006 Planning Act, funds have to be available on time. Each nuclear operator (EDF, Orano, CEA, ANDRA) of BNIs manages its respective funds, which stay inside the company as provisions backed by dedicated assets of sufficient security and liquidity.

TABLE 6. STATUS OF DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Note: ID — immediate dismantling and removal of all radioactive materials.

Shutdown reason: 1 — the technology or process being used became obsolete; 2 — the process was no longer profitable.

Current decommissioning phase: 9 — final dismantling.

Current fuel management phase: 3 — storage in an on-site facility; 6 — underwater storage period.

Source: IAEA Power Reactor Information System (PRIS).

In 2018, EDF defined specific devoted automated/remote tools for cutting irradiated components such as vessel internals for Chooz-A. The Brennilis decommissioning site is also developing scenarios involving specific tools in order to prepare for reactor vessel dismantling.

In June 2017, EDF officially launched its modular real scale Industrial Decommissioning Demonstrator project. The construction of this new facility started in France in early 2019 in order to meet operational objectives by 2022. This representative decommissioning demonstrator facility (open to all partners interested in joining the project) will enable improvement of safety as well as technical and financial aspects through the following:

• Checking the feasibility of decommissioning scenarios using remote handling tools;

• Testing these tools on real scale representative mock-ups as well as on a 3D simulation platform;

• Safely training operators to improve their efficiency or to adapt and set tools prior to real operations;

• Defining, assessing and testing alternative solutions safely while facing potential unexpected situations.

The facility will be in Chinon, a central location that is easily accessible.

The CEA is also responsible for decommissioning research reactors and labs at the end of their lifetime.

The development strategy for nuclear power is related to the goals set forth by the ETGGA and the draft of the 2019–2028 MEP. The ETGGA will be updated in 2019 to include adjustments set in the 2019–2028 MEP.

The majority of the 58 nuclear reactors will reach 40 years of operation within the next 15 years. Each reactor will then be required to pass a periodic and comprehensive safety assessment (due every 10 years of operation) to be authorized to extend its power generation activities. Given the goal to diversify the electricity mix and in relation to security of supply issues, questions about extending the operation of some of the current nuclear power plants will be raised in the coming years, as well as whether to retire some plants or build new ones.

The 2019–2028 draft MEP anticipates the shutdown of Fessenheim in 2020 and spreads the shutdown of reactors that will reach 50 years of operation so that the decommissioning can be sustainable from an economic, technical and social viewpoint. This will lead to the closure of 14 reactors (including Fessenheim) by 2035, dependent on security of supply and neighbouring countries reducing their use of coal and accelerating the decarbonization of their mix. By this date, 50% of French electricity should come from nuclear.

In order to be able to take a decision on the construction of new reactors, the government will prepare a comprehensive report on the topic by mid-2021, with support from EDF.

The following events will influence the implementation of this strategy and the evolution of nuclear power in France in the future:

• Evolution of power consumption and level of electricity exports driven by higher use of low carbon electricity and progress in energy efficiency;

• Development of renewable energy and the capacity to sustain a low carbon energy mix;

• Decisions of the ASN regarding the operation lifetime and potential lifetime extension of current power plants;

• The commissioning of the Flamanville EPR, the 59th reactor of France’s fleet, due to be connected in 2020, and the planned shutdown of the Fessenheim power plant in conformity with the limit to installed nuclear capacity;

• The optimization of the EPR design, basis for the next fleet of nuclear reactors;

• The end of the basic design phase by the CEA on the design of an advanced technological demonstrator (Astrid) for the potential implementation of fourth generation sodium cooled fast reactors.

Along with this development strategy, France has a policy of nuclear fuel management focused on the recycling of uranium oxide spent fuel into MOX fuel, currently used in 22 reactors with a capacity of 900 MW(e).

For radioactive waste management, different solutions are outlined in the PNGMDR. In particular, very low level waste and low and intermediate level short lived waste are stored in repository sites. A deep geological repository project (CIGEO) for high and intermediate level long lived waste is currently under way.

The main projects that are ongoing are managed by the relevant actors:

• CEA for the Jules Horowitz Reactor (JHR) (see Section 2.8.2) and the research programme on fourth generation reactors;

• ANDRA for CIGEO;

• EDF for the Flamanville EPR, ‘Grand Carénage’ (see Section 2.3.3) and the export projects.

From 2014 to 2025, significant maintenance operations on France’s nuclear fleet are planned in order to secure the best conditions of nuclear safety (including integration of post-Fukushima modifications) and improve on environmental safety and protection. The ‘Grand Carénage’ industrial programme for long term operation aims to overcome this challenge by involving the nuclear power sector in the short term in refurbishing the entire nuclear fleet, while enhancing reactor safety, for €45.6 billion (2016 rate).

This programme covers both normal maintenance investments and investments relating to the project (replacement of some key elements like steam generators).

In the short term, EDF aims to complete major industrial projects, such as the Flamanville-3 EPR, representing €10.9 billion of investments to date.

JHR and the research programme on fourth generation reactors are funded by state subsidies and large investment programmes, such as the Programme d’Investissements d’Avenir. The CIGEO project is also supported by subsidies, as well as local taxes coming from waste management and storage.

The comprehensive report to support the decision to build new nuclear reactors will include a chapter on the financial model.

No additional information provided.

See Section 2.2.1.

Society continues to call for more dialogue and public communication in regard to projects likely to damage the environment. The EDF group organizes and engages in transparent and inclusive dialogue during the lifetime of its NPPs and consultation for each new project, all while observing the best international standards.

The challenge is to facilitate systematic dialogue and consultation in proportion to the implications of related projects, including practices to do the following:

• Identify stakeholders;

• Initiate consultation early;

• Provide stakeholders with transparent access to clear information on the project;

• Gather opinions and deal with suggestions and complaints;

• Encourage the participation of local residents in the consultation process.

For the revision of the MEP, a public debate took place over three months to allow any citizen to get access to reliable and comprehensive information about the energy policy in the coming years and to offer contributions to the general discussion among all the stakeholders.

In 1945, the French government created a national agency, CEA, to oversee the development of all aspects of atomic energy, including both civil and military applications. Although its responsibilities evolved over time, particularly with the transfer of some industrial activities to newly created subsidiaries, CEA has retained most of its early activities and interests in medium and long term R&D, notably in reactor design, fuel concepts, enrichment, spent fuel reprocessing, waste management and disposal, as well as in technology transfer and fundamental research.

In 2010, CEA’s name was changed to better reflect the areas of research and development conducted for many years in the field of low carbon energy: nuclear, but also solar, hydrogen generation, fuel cells, electricity storage, housing and transport, and transformation of biomass into biofuels. CEA now refers to the ‘Commissariat ŕ l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives’ (Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission) to be more inclusive of alternative and renewable energy types.

France is a founding member of the GIF (Generation IV International Forum), where collaborative R&D explores promising technologies for future nuclear energy systems, addressing issues of enhanced safety, sustainability, non-proliferation and economics. France’s participation in GIF activities takes place through the CEA, which acts as the national implementing agent, and focuses on four of the six GIF systems: sodium fast reactors (SFRs), gas fast reactors, very high temperature reactors and molten salt reactors (MSRs). For MSR research, the national contact point is the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS).

France has given priority to the development of sodium cooled fast reactor technology, on which it has already acquired substantial experience and know-how. Today, R&D activities in this domain take place through the Astrid demonstration project, aiming to qualify design options for a future commercial SFR that fulfils fourth generation objectives and to qualify the multiple recycling of plutonium at an industrial level, and different fuel subassemblies for plutonium burning and transmutation (in case of a future decision from the Government of France). The CEA developed this project within the framework of the French 2006 Nuclear Waste Act. Many industrial and international partners are part of the project for improved cooperation.

It is now considered that fast-neutrons reactors will not be necessary in the short and medium term, so R&D efforts on the closure of the fuel cycle, which encompass the R&D on the associated reactor technology, are currently being adjusted to take into account this more distant perspective. CEA will maintain a strong R&D programme on sodium cooled fast reactor technology and, for the short and medium term, focus on the development of simulation capabilities and experimental tests in existing fast-neutron reactors. However, the design of a demonstration reactor will not be pursued in the short term.

The gas cooled fast reactor is identified as the alternative long term technology. There is a greater aim to demonstrate its feasibility, and CEA is associated with a European collaborative project lead by the V4G4 consortium to pursue possible deployment in the longer term.

French nuclear R&D and industrial organizations are involved in the European Sustainable Nuclear Energy Research Technological Platform, covering second and third generation R&D, fourth generation fast neutron technologies and industrial nuclear cogeneration.

The construction of JHR, CEA’s new experimental material testing reactor (100 MW(th)), is underway in Cadarache. Partly funded through an international consortium with 13 partners, it will be an international research tool focused on the enhancement of safety and the improvement of operation of industrial NPPs, but JHR will also be used for nuclear medicine. In particular, it will supply hospitals with short lived radioisotopes used for medical imaging or therapeutic purposes. Following new construction planning in 2015, the first load is expected to take place in 2022, with isotope production taking place 18 months later.

In June 2005, the site of Cadarache in France was officially chosen to welcome the International Thermoreactor Experimental Reactor (ITER), and construction started in 2010. In November 2016, the ITER Council endorsed the overall project schedule, which identifies December 2025 as the earliest technically achievable date for first plasma and 2035 as the start of deuterium–tritium operation.

France is a member of several international organizations, including the IAEA and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the OECD. It participates in other bilateral and multilateral organizations such as the World Association of Nuclear Operators, with EDF as a member.

As mentioned above, France is also a founding member of the GIF, the international forum of 13 countries (in addition to Euratom) set up to carry out the R&D needed to establish the feasibility and performance capabilities of the next generation nuclear energy systems.

France also participates in the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation, an international forum for cooperation among participating states to explore mutually beneficial approaches to ensure that the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes proceeds in a manner that is efficient and meets the highest standards of safety, security and non-proliferation.

France participates in the Multinational Design Evaluation Programme, a multinational initiative to develop innovative approaches to leverage the resources and knowledge of the national regulatory authorities that are currently or will be tasked with the review of new nuclear power reactor designs.

Nuclear legislation in France was developed in successive stages alongside technological advances and growth in the atomic energy field. Therefore, many of the enactments governing nuclear activities are to be found in the general French legislation on environmental protection, water supply, atmospheric pollution, public health and labour.

However, the French Parliament has also adopted a number of specific enactments. Examples include Act No. 68-493 (30 October 1968), now embodied in the Environmental Code, setting special rules as to third party liability in the field of nuclear energy, which is distinct from the ordinary French law on third party liability; Act No. 91-1381 on the management of nuclear waste and Act No. 2006-686 on transparency and security, adopted in 2006, now mostly embodied in the Environmental Code.

Although French nuclear law is characterized by its variety of sources, as in other countries with nuclear energy capacities, the original features of this legislation derive chiefly from international recommendations or regulations. For example, radiation protection standards are derived from the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection and directives issued by the European Atomic Energy Community or Euratom (formerly the European Community). Likewise, the French provisions on the liability of nuclear operators are directly derived from the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960.

French nuclear legislation began to develop from the time the CEA no longer held a monopoly over nuclear activities and when new nuclear operators entered the industrial stage. This development passed several landmarks: an authorization requirement for major nuclear installations was introduced, setting Government responsibility in matters of population and occupational safety (Decree of 11 December 1963). Prior to this, procedures concerning the licensing and control of industrial activities were dealt with by the prefect for each department. In 1973, this system was expanded to cover the development of the nuclear power programme, and better define the role of Government authorities. Finally, the decree of 20 June 1966 included Euratom directives as part of the French radiation protection regulations.

In June 2006, Act No. 2006-686 on transparency and security created the ASN. It is an independent administrative agency headed by five members designated by the President of the Republic and the presidents of the two parliamentary assemblies. The agency is consulted before decisions concerning nuclear safety, nuclear security and radioprotection are taken by decrees. It can also complete the legislation on technical matters, but its decisions may be approved by the ministers in charge of these questions. The ASN is also responsible for the following:

1. Organizing and directing the control of nuclear installations (designation of inspectors, delivery of permits, etc.);

2. Monitoring radioprotection over national territory;

3. Proposing and organizing public information, especially on nuclear safety;

4. Establishing the procedures for licensing large nuclear installations (licences for setting up, commissioning, disposal, shutdown, etc.);

5. Helping manage the emergency situation in the event of an accident involving radioactive exposure.

Act No. 2006-686 on transparency and security also clarified the responsibilities of the Government and the ASN in the fields of nuclear safety and radiation protection. The Government makes the general regulations in terms of nuclear safety and radioprotection, such as BNI nomenclature decrees, BNI procedural decrees or BNI orders (embodied in the Environmental Code since 1 April 2019), but also specific creation authorization decrees, significant modification decrees or decrees for definitive shutdown and dismantlement of BNIs.

The body with these responsibilities in the Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition is the Mission for Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection.

First, the Government commissions the ASN to examine requests for permission to create or decommission nuclear installations, start a new reactor, extend its lifetime, use MOX fuel, and so on. The ASN makes recommendations to the Government on the decrees in these areas. After this obligatory step, if the opinion is favourable, the Government concludes with the publication of the relevant decree, formalizing authorization.