In January 2014, the Government announced a long term strategy that would determine the direction of national energy policy through 2035. The Second Energy Master Plan, aimed at reducing final energy consumption by 13% by 2035, contained six basic directions: 1) conversion to demand management policies; 2) establishment of a distributed generation system; 3) balancing the environment and safety; 4) enhancement of energy security and a stable energy supply; 5) a stable supply system of each energy source; and 6) an energy policy reflecting public opinion.

Table 1 shows the energy reserves of the Republic of Korea at the end of 2016.

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

* Solid, liquid: million tonnes; gas: billion m³; uranium: metric tonnes; hydro (supply capacity), renewables (generating capacity): TW.

—: Data not available.

Sources: Korea Resources Corporation (http://www.kores.or.kr/); Korea National Oil Corporation (http://www.knoc.co.kr/ENG); Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng); Korea Energy Agency (http://www.energy.or.kr/renew_eng).

TABLE 2. ENERGY STATISTICS

* Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import–Export) of secondary energy.

** Solid fuels include coal, lignite, etc.

—: Data not available.

Source: Korea Energy Statistics Information System (http://www.kesis.net/).

The principle ministry responsible for developing electricity policy in the Republic of Korea is the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE). MOTIE works in consultation and close cooperation with the Ministry of Strategy and Finance (MOSF), six generation companies (GenCos) and the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO). With energy being regarded as a key component of the Republic of Korea’s rapid economic development, the government has maintained a strong presence in the sector.

MOTIE, either through direct or indirect government ownership of energy companies, utilities and several energy research institutes, has maintained a high degree of control in all aspects of energy policy development and implementation.

The Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) has the overall responsibility to ensure nuclear safety through regulatory activities. The NSSC is also a policy maker for the nuclear sector.

MOTIE continues to establish the biannual Basic Plan of Long Term Electricity Supply and Demand (BPE), which reflects environmental and safety factors in addition to stable power supply and economic efficiency.

The BPE includes the forecast for power demand over the next 15 years until 2031; plans for power generation facilities are based on the estimate. The latest power generation blueprint projects peak electricity demand in 2030 at 100.5 gigawatts (GW), which is down 11% from the forecast of 113.2 GW made in the seventh edition using the same methodology, as the economy is expected to grow at a slower pace than it did two years ago. 

The BPE blueprint calls for further reduction in the expected peak demand by 12.3%, or 14.2 GW, through using technologies of the fourth industrial revolution and introducing new regulations that promote energy efficiency. The target reserve margin for 2030 is set at 22% — there will be an excess capacity in the amount of 22% of peak demand — and this makes the installed capacity for the year 122.6 GW. 

Power generation facilities with a combined capacity of 4.3 GW need to be newly added to existing and already planned facilities with a capacity of 118.3 GW. The new generation facilities will be liquefied natural gas (LNG) power stations and pumped storage hydroelectric facilities.  Between 2017 and 2030, the installed capacity of renewables is expected to increase to 58.5 GW from the current 11.3 GW, with growth coming mainly from solar and wind power. The total capacity of LNG power plants would expand to 47.5 GW from 37.4 GW, and coal fired power plants would grow to 39.9 GW from 36.8 GW. 

Meanwhile, the installed capacity of nuclear power generation would contract to 20.4 GW from 22.5 GW as five new reactors would enter operation and 11 aging reactors would be taken offline during the period. 

Under the new energy roadmap, natural gas and renewable energy sources will have a greater share in the generation mix in terms of installed capacity. Renewable energy would account 33.7% of the installed capacity in 2030 — up from 9.7% this year. The combined capacity of nuclear reactors and coal fired power plants would represent around a third of the mix — down from 50.9%. 

The government also aims to generate 20% of electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030. The share of natural gas is expected to be 18.8%, while those of coal and nuclear power are 36.1% and 23.9%, respectively. 

Six power generation companies, independent power producers and community energy systems are producing electric power. Simultaneously, KEPCO transports the electric power purchased from the Korea Power Exchange through the transmission and distribution network, and sells it to general customers.

FIG. 1. Structure of the Republic of Korea’s electric power sector.

Source: Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng).

TABLE 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

¹ Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

n.a.: Data not applicable.

—: Data not available.

Source: Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng).

TABLE 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

Nuclear activities in the Republic of Korea were initiated in 1957, when it became a Member State of the IAEA. The following year, Korea passed its Atomic Energy Law. In 1959, the Office of Atomic Energy was established in conformity with the global trend toward the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Since the 1970s, the Republic of Korea has carried out a very ambitious nuclear power programme in parallel with the nation’s industrialization policy. The Republic of Korea has maintained a strong commitment to nuclear power development as an integral part of its national energy policy, aiming to reduce external vulnerability and insure against global fossil fuel shortages.

The localization process of Korean nuclear power technology was made from design, manufacturing, construction, operation and maintenance, fuel fabrication and building up of a safety regulatory infrastructure in a relatively short period. As part of this trend, a high degree of technological self-reliance in various nuclear fields was achieved through the construction of Yonggwang nuclear power plant (NPP), units 3 & 4. At present, NPP technology and related fuel cycle technologies are maturing.

Currently, the Republic of Korea has 24 operational reactors with a net capacity of 22.5 GW(e) which provide approximately 30% of the Republic of Korea’s electricity. Five reactors, consisting of an additional 7GW(e), are also under construction. Korea’s reactors are located at five sites and all new builds are expected to be at these sites.

The new Government focuses on the safety of operating nuclear power plants, decommissioning nuclear facilities and managing of spent fuel, under the Energy Transition Policy officially announced in 2017.

Nuclear related activities are planned and carried out by various organizations such as the Ministry of Science & ICT (MSIT), MOTIE, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) and the NSSC:

• MSIT has the overall responsibility for the nation’s nuclear research and development and nuclear international cooperation.

• MOTIE is responsible for the construction and operation of NPPs, the nuclear fuel supply, and the management of radioactive waste.

• MOFA has its responsibility for the nuclear diplomatic activities, including the conclusion of bilateral and multilateral agreements and treaties.

• NSSC is responsible for nuclear safety, security and non-proliferation as a regulatory body.

FIG. 2. Main nuclear related organizations in the Republic of Korea.

Sources: Ministry of Science and ICT.

Currently, a total gross capacity of 22.5 GW(e) is installed in the 24 operating NPPs, comprising 20 pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and four CANDU pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs). There are five units under construction. Table 5 shows the status of NPPs as of December 2017.

TABLE 5. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

* UCF (unit capability factor) for the latest available year (only applicable to reactors in operation).

** Latest available data.

+ Date, when first major placing of concrete, usually for the base mat of the reactor building completion.

++ Date of first connection to the grid.

—: Data not available.

Plant upgrading and plant life management

Beginning in September 2002, Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power (KHNP) conducted power uprating projects for Kori 3 & 4 to uprate their reactor thermal power and eventually to increase electrical output at the units. Kori 3 & 4 reached their new rated thermal power (2900 MW(th), 4.5% stretch power uprate (SPU)) in December and February 2009, respectively, and increased their electrical output by 34.1 MW(e) from 999 MW(e) (original output) to 1033.1 MW(e) (uprated output).

After SPU implementation for Kori 3 & 4, KHNP tried to conduct other SPU projects for Hanbit (Younggwang) 1 & 2 and Hanul (Ulchin) 1 & 2. Yet, due to issues of public acceptance, these projects were put on hold. If the level of public acceptance for SPU improves, these projects will start up again. To effectively manage major systems, structures and components (SSCs) and to reduce the maintenance cost of the operating nuclear power plants, long term asset management (LTAM) strategies based on equipment reliability processes (INPO AP-913), were developed by KHNP as a part of plant life management.

LTAM implementation is progressing through continuous improvement and finding out about the issues involved in implementation.

Continued operation (licence renewal)

The definition of continued operation is stated in the nuclear law enforcement ordinance. Under this legal statement, it is possible to extend a plant’s operation beyond its design lifetime. The period of continued operation of NPPs is ten years according to the current legal framework in the Republic of Korea. It is mandatory for the utility to conduct a periodic safety review (PSR) at operating NPPs every ten years and to submit PSRs for regulatory review. An enhanced PSR, including a lifetime evaluation report (LER) and radiological environment report (RER), should be submitted by the utility to the NSSC in the continued operation application two to five years before the end of the design lifetime. The LER of the continued operation includes ageing management programmes (AMPs) and time limited ageing analyses (TLAAs) identifying the SSCs within the scope of the continued operation. In June 2006, KHNP submitted the safety evaluation report for continued operation of Kori-1 to the regulatory body of MSIT, and MSIT officially approved continued operation on 11 December 2007. The safety evaluation report on Wolsong-1 was also submitted in December 2009 and the NSSC approved continued operation on 27 February 2015.

According to the 8th Basic Plan of Long Term Electricity Supply and Demand finalized by MOTIE in December 2017, five units of APR1400 will be constructed by 2023. Construction of new NNPs and extending the lifetimes of existing NPPS will not be pursued.

TABLE 6. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS UNDER CONSTRUCTION

The APR1400 is a Generation III type light water reactor with a capacity of 1400 MW(e), developed on the design basis of OPR1000. Unlike the OPR1000, the APR1400 has a four trains active type safety system and is expected to be ten times safer than OPR1000. The standard design of the APR1400 was certified by the Republic of Korea’s regulatory agency. Shin Kori 3 & 4 is the first plant to implement the APR1400. Shin Kori-3 started commercial operation in December 2016, and achieved one week breakdown operation. Following such an accomplishment, Shin Kori-4 is scheduled to start commercial operation in September 2018.

The APR1400 design was also certified by the European Utility Requirements (EUR) Organization in November 2017. The EU-APR standard design is the APR1400, designed to European safety standards. The design was selected as a preferred bidder for Moorside NPP in the United Kingdom. KEPCO and KHNP are working to export the APR1400 design to other countries.

In 1985, the Government of the Republic of Korea made the landmark decision to implement a national self-reliance policy and allocated roles and duties among the domestic nuclear organizations to streamline the nuclear power industry (See Fig. 3).

FIG. 3. Structure of nuclear power industry.

Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction has taken part in plant manufacturing through its capacity to supply heavy industrial construction equipment and machinery. KEPCO Engineering & Construction Company, Inc. (KEPCO E&C) was established in 1975 to foster the nation’s self-reliance in power technologies, particularly in nuclear power engineering for PWRs. KEPCO E&C has prime responsibility for architectural engineering. KEPCO Nuclear Fuel (NF) was established in November 1982 by joint investment of KEPCO and the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) to localize the nuclear fuel fabrication for PWRs and PHWRs. NSSC and the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) conduct safety reviews and inspections of nuclear facilities or radiation facilities.

The technological self-reliance strategy has been applied since construction of HANBIT 3 & 4. Domestic nuclear industries became the projects’ prime contractors under the conditions of technology support, guidance and then transfer from foreign subcontractors.

KHNP works to secure the reasonable sales price of electricity and reduce the cost of production in order to maximize retained earnings, which can be used for future capital expenditure. To acquire additional funding, KHNP is issuing corporate bonds in the short term with diversified maturities to attract national and international investors.

In the long term, KHNP is considering diverse arrangements such as equity financing in addition to current debt financing to maintain financial soundness. Also, KHNP is managing financial risks to reduce and eliminate various financial risks to acceptable levels complying with policies and procedures.

According to the 8th Basic Plan of Long Term Electricity Supply and Demand, there will be no particular added transmission lines for NPPs to the current grid.

TABLE 7. LIST OF SELECTED NPP SITES AND CHARACTERISTICS

In order to enhance public acceptance, KHNP puts the utmost effort into various activities to support local business, take part in conflict management and promote social contribution. Every year, surveys regarding social contribution are conducted among local residents around NPPs. The criteria of the surveys are as follows; contribution to the local economy, satisfaction in local cooperation, ecological engineering, public support in nuclear power use, safety credibility, and confidence in information release. The results of the survey will be used as a reference for policy making in continued operation of NPPS and introduction of a new NPP.

The Nuclear Energy Promotion Act stipulates that MSIT shall formulate a comprehensive plan for the promotion of nuclear energy every five years.

The Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP) is mainly implemented by KAERI, the Korea Institute of Radiological & Medical Sciences (KIRAMS) and KINS. Additional industry led R&D programmes are implemented mainly by KHNP, KEPCO E&C, KEPCO KPS, and KEPCO NF.

In 1997, the Government of the Republic of Korea established CNEPP, which includes the national policy on nuclear energy utilization and promotion and its sectoral tasks. As a part of the plan, a national nuclear R&D plan has been formulated every five years since 1997 to take into account the major changes in the R&D environment and the technological progression. The national nuclear R&D plan from 2017 to 2021 was set up with the goals of advancing nuclear technology development, enhancing nuclear safety and completing core technology. It focuses on five research fields: 1) nuclear safety; 2) radioactive waste management; 3) advanced reactors and fuel; 4) application of radiation and radioisotopes; and 5) fundamental technologies. A technology innovation project for operating NPPs has also been developed for the nuclear industry.

Future nuclear technology development strategy was established to support the R&D part of the Energy Transition Policy and expand the socioeconomic application of nuclear technology capability at the end of 2017. Five specific R&D strategies were suggested for successful achievement: 1) securing plant safety and decommissioning technology; 2) expanding the use of nuclear and radiation technology; 3) promoting overseas exports; 4) securing new future engine sources such as fusion energy; and 5) commercializing nuclear technology.

To secure plant safety, the Republic of Korea supports technology related to safety and accident prevention as well as its application in the field. It also enhances technologies for physical protection and emergency preparedness, which would more effectively prepare the Republic of Korea to respond to a nuclear accident.

As the world decommissioning market is expected to grow rapidly within the next twenty years, the Republic of Korea is securing nuclear decommissioning technology and infrastructure, especially as safe management of cumulative spent fuel has become an issue of great concern at home and abroad. The Republic of Korea ensures the efficient and safe management of spent fuel by backing up related technology and establishing a demonstration system.

The use of radiation technology in the medical field, including cancer diagnosis and treatment, is increasing on a global scale. In the Republic of Korea, the tendency of radiation technology is also towards the expanded use of not only medicine but also plant breeding, food preservation and so on. The Republic of Korea is trying to support customized cancer diagnosis and treatment by combining advanced medical care with radiation technology.

In line with this, the Republic of Korea develops advanced materials and addresses environmental problems associated with nuclear technology. Convergence of nuclear and other technologies from different fields such as space, marine, polar and so on is also being promoted to expand the use of nuclear technology.

The Republic of Korea supports the export of research and small reactors by combining services such as operation and regulation systems. In addition, an export foundation will be set up for domestic nuclear fuel and element technologies.

To secure new future engine sources, the Republic of Korea ensures core technology and operational capabilities of fusion energy and has taken a leading position in the ITER project. Lastly, commercialization of radiation convergence technology and decommissioning technology is supported, as is domestic industry in the research reactor and SMART field.

The Republic of Korea has signed nuclear cooperative agreements with 29 countries, including joint standing committees with China, France, India, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, and the United States of America on a regular basis. The two main purposes of bilateral cooperation are the advancement of nuclear technology by securing specific technologies and the establishment of a foundation for overseas promotion by expanding technical exchanges on a long term basis. Table 8 shows the current status of joint standing committees with six countries.

TABLE 8. JOINT STANDING COMMITTEE

On a multilateral level, the Republic of Korea actively participates in international cooperation with such organizations as the IAEA and OECD/NEA and other international cooperative frameworks, including the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) and the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC).

Since 2010, following the completion of three national projects on accelerator and mutation breeding, the status of the Republic of Korea has changed from a recipient to a donor state for the IAEA’s Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP). As a longstanding contributor to a regional cooperative agreement (RCA), the Republic of Korea plays the pivotal role of project lead country (PLC) in the field of nuclear medicine and radiotherapy. Under the framework of INPRO, Korea has participated in the following collaborative projects: Review of Concepts for Prevention of Severe Accidents and Mitigation of their Consequences (RISC); Fuel Cycle Analysis for Future Nuclear Energy Systems (FANES); and Waste from Innovative Types of Reactors and Fuel Cycles (WIRAF).

The Republic of Korea has contributed to OECD/NEA activities since 1994. The type of participation in the NEA ranges from contributing to the agency’s joint research activities such as the ATLAS project, which aims to provide experimental data for resolving key LWR thermohydraulic safety issues following the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident, to joining the international discussion within the framework of the NEA.

Through the GIF, the Republic of Korea has also been involved since 2000 in the global movement to carry out R&D needed to establish feasibility and performance capabilities of next generation nuclear energy systems. As one of 11 active member countries, the Republic of Korea has participated in research and development activities of two systems. It has also acted as vice chair, whose duty since 2016 has been to promote external collaboration of the GIF with international organizations. In addition, the Republic of Korea served from 2015 to the first half of 2018 as the chair of the Senior Industry Advisory Panel (SIAP), an advisory group composed of senior members in the nuclear industry.

The Republic of Korea has also contributed to the IFNEC activities in exploring multilateral approaches for promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The IFNEC executive committee meeting and steering group meeting were held in October 2014 in Seoul. The Republic of Korea will align with the IFNEC and support its cooperative activities that deal with current challenges such as regulating new technology developments, including the small modular reactors (SMRs) programme. There is also a plan to support the activities related to the Nuclear Supplier and Customer Countries Engagement Group (NSCCEG), an ad hoc group newly established for the purpose of exploring past and current engagement between suppliers and customers to achieve effective regulation and safety culture.

On-line

To manage information on portal sites, a key source of nuclear energy information, KEIA posted on on-line dictionaries such as Naver, Daum and Wikipedia. Through such portals, fair and objective knowledge content was developed to post on sites to promote appropriate information with the national public. Centring on 356 keywords by category, including nuclear energy concepts, history and radiation, the base text was accentuated using multimedia content, including infographics, illustrations, videos and photos, to reap visual educational effects. Through content development based on on-line searches, information accessibility was strengthened by displaying knowledge dictionary contents at the top of the page upon keyword searches.

In addition, the Energy Information Interactive Centre (EIIC) was created, a comprehensive on-line information site aimed at improving convenience and accessibility for information on various energy sources, including nuclear energy. EIIC, which comprehensively provides information across 51 categories gathered through seven government ministries (including MOTIE), as well as 13 government agencies. It also has a debate menu to increase national participation. Site efficiency has been improved by developing a data integration system with related organizations and strengthening connectivity with search engines.

At the same time, KEIA also organized a national communication advisory committee comprised of members from various fields, including the public, media, technology and engineering fields, to conduct technical consultations and national communication to respond to unanswered questions within on-line and knowledge communities. Preventing the spread of inaccurate information was prioritized by providing verified information by monitoring keywords, such as nuclear energy, radiation, spent nuclear fuel and radiation exposure, through the Naver Knowledge Q&A response service.

Off-line

Promotion of nuclear energy policies had limitations in improving acceptance due to a focus on manufacturing and developing policy content that provides limited opportunities for national public participation. Consequently, civic participation and national discussions to collect various opinions in the process of manufacturing, distributing and evaluating policies are required as a means to alleviate social conflicts surrounding energy policies and acquire policy consistency.

In 2017, public discussions regarding the construction of Shinkori 5 & 6 were conducted through civic participation, and deliberation was a highly publicized issue. In addition to this, discussion venues were invested in and various stakeholders participated to collect opinions on nuclear energy and find ways to alleviate conflicts through discussion and deliberation.

Media

Most of the nuclear energy information accessed by the public is delivered through the press and media. Consequently, it is important to share information about such issues as nuclear energy, economic and the environment through the media. Accordingly, there have been investments to strengthen media relations and improve utilization.

Public perceptions and attitudes about nuclear energy vary depending on age, gender or occupation. Accordingly, activities to improve nuclear understanding must be conducted by segment characteristics. Since the formation of proper perceptions among future generations is the basis for introducing stable energy policies in the long term, the Republic of Korea must strive to provide steady and proper education.

To achieve this, training in nuclear energy is provided every year to elementary, middle and high school teachers across the country so that teachers can acquire objective and accurate knowledge about nuclear energy and energy in general. In the past, teacher training was conducted for 1 night/3 days during summer and winter vacations and involved theory education and on-site education, such as tours of NPPs, radiation use facilities and R&D facilities. In 2017, however, this programme was changed to an ‘e-learning teacher training’ system that allows teachers to receive training throughout the year.

Radiological emergency preparedness is based on the Act on Physical Protection and Radiological Emergency (APPRE), which stipulates the system of managing radiological emergencies, as well as the Framework Act on Civil Defense and the Basic Act of Disasters and Safety Control, which stipulate the system of national response against disasters of various kinds. APPRE, in particular, which was legislated in May 2003 and entered into force in February 2004, stipulates overall radiological emergency management activities including: prevention of, preparedness for, and response to a radiological emergency; radiological emergency medical treatment; and international cooperation.

Pursuant to APPRE, the NSSC formulates a National Radiological Emergency Plan every five years, which is linked with the Basic Plan for National Safety Management established based on the Basic Act of Disasters and Safety Control. Each year, the NSSC prepares a National Radiological Preparedness Plan, which is an implementation plan for radiological preparedness. Local governments with relevant jurisdiction over all or a part of an emergency planning zone make their own radiological preparedness plan every year in accordance with the Basic Plan for National Safety Management and the National Radiological Preparedness Plan. The nuclear licensee also establishes a radiological emergency plan and obtains approval of its plan from the NSSC.

APPRE defines nuclear facilities as nuclear power reactors, nuclear research reactors, nuclear fuel cycling facilities, storage/processing/disposal facilities for radioactive waste, utilization facilities of nuclear materials and other facilities involved in the use of nuclear energy and those who obtain construction permits and operating licences for nuclear facilities. Hence, nuclear licensees, such as operators of NPPs and of facilities related to spent fuel and radioactive waste, are required to perform emergency response activities in case of a radiation emergency or disaster in accordance with the radiological emergency plan approved by the rules and requirements mentioned above.

The NSSC carries out an inspection of the licensee’s duties, facilities and equipment to respond to a radiological disaster, radiological emergency education and radiological emergency exercise in accordance with the NSSC notice (Regulation on Inspection for Radiological Emergency of Nuclear Licensee).

In order to carry out effective resident protective measures based on their distance from the nuclear installations, APPRE was revised in May 2014 to divide a radiation emergency plan zone (EPZ) into a precautionary action zone (PAZ) and an urgent action planning zone (UPZ), reflecting IAEA standards. Centring on power reactors and related facilities, the EPZ was set at a radius of 3–5 km and the UPZ at a radius of 20–30 km. Subordinate statutes were also revised to establish an EPZ considering regional characteristics such as roads and topography.

Radiological Emergency Response Scheme

The radiological emergency response scheme is composed of a National Emergency Management Committee which is chaired by the chair of the NSSC, an off-site emergency management centre (OEMC), a local emergency management centre (LEMC), the Radiological Emergency Technical Advisory Centre of KINS, the National Radiation Emergency Medical Centre of the Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences (KIRAMS), and the emergency operations facility of the nuclear operator, as shown in Fig. 5.

FIG. 5. National radiological emergency preparedness scheme.

The NSSC has a responsibility to control and coordinate countermeasures against a potential radiological disaster. When a radiological emergency occurs (on-site emergency and above), the NSSC operates a Central Safety Management Committee. Central government offices and specialized institutes meet as members of the committee to initiate a practical pan-governmental response system. The NSSC installs and operates the OEMC, which is chaired by the Secretary General of the NSSC and consists of experts from the central and local governments, local military and police, firefighting and educational institutes, nuclear safety expert organizations, radiological medical service institutes, and personnel dispatched by the licensees. The OEMC has a responsibility to coordinate and manage the radiological emergency response, including accident analysis, radiation (radioactivity) detection, and decision making on public protective actions such as sheltering, evacuation, food restriction, distribution of thyroid protection medicine, and control of consumption of agricultural, livestock and fishery products.

The LEMC, established by the concerned local governments, implements the OEMC’s decisions on protective measures for residents. It also takes charge of coordination and control of emergency relief activities utilizing local fire stations, police stations and military units.

When an accident occurs, the KHNP, the licensee of nuclear installation, is responsible for organizing an Emergency Operation Centre and for taking measures to mitigate the consequences of the accident, to restore installations, and to protect the on-site personnel.

The central government established and has operated the national radiological emergency medical treatment system for coordination and control of radiological medical services. The national radiological emergency medical treatment system consists of KIRAMS’ Radiological Emergency Medical Centre and 24 primary/secondary radiological emergency medical centres.

Protective Measure

In order to carry out effective measures to protect the population from radiation, an EPZ was expanded from 8–10 km to 20–30 km and further divided into a precautionary action zone (PAZ) and an urgent action planning zone (UPZ). As a result, residents living in PAZs can be provided with prompt and effective protective measures if and when radioactive materials are released. Local government designates public buildings in different regions as aid stations in advance, considering the estimated population of evacuation, estimated time, and distance for evacuation of the residents living in the PAZ. In case of an accident, relevant actions of sheltering and evacuation are carried out based on the decisions of the OEMC.

Considering the special aspects of a radiological accident, the local government and the nuclear installation operator must jointly alert the population living within a radius of 5 km of the nuclear installation. The operators of nuclear installations are responsible not only for reporting emergency situations to the organizations concerned, but also for providing the local government with advice and consultations on protective measures in the early phase of the accident.

When an emergency situation occurs, to prevent thyroid exposure from radioactive iodine, the local government retains potassium iodide for emergency distribution. The KHNP has made agreements with designated hospitals near the site of nuclear installations for prompt medical service in case of a radiological accident, and established the Radiation Health Research Institute, which conducts research activities and incorporates the results into radiation and health physics. The institute also provides radiological emergency medical services and medical examinations for nuclear workers.

The operator of nuclear installations shall periodically conduct training and exercises for emergency personnel to qualify them by providing thorough knowledge of emergency duties. The International Nuclear Safety School of KINS, Nuclear Training Centre of KAERI and Human Resources Development Institute of the KHNP operate training courses on emergency preparedness for personnel involved in an emergency response.

KIRAMS operates and implements the training and exercises for radiological emergency medical treatment for emergency medical personnel designated by the heads of 24 primary/secondary radiological emergency medical centres.

According to APPRE, radiological emergency training is comprehensively managed at the national level. KINS has conducted the regulatory inspection of radiological emergency training programmes in radiological emergency educational institutes. To support the implementation of comprehensive and systematic radiological emergency training, the NSSC Notice on Education for Radiological Emergency Preparedness specifies the designation and notification of radiological emergency staff, establishment of training programmes, method of training and other necessary details.

After the expansion of the EPZ in May 2014, in accordance with the revised APPRE, the NSSC pushed forward follow-up measures by revising its enforcement decree in November 2014, in which the joint exercise of radiological preparedness organized by local governments shall take place on NPP sites once every two years instead of once every four years and intensive exercises shall be newly introduced, including resident protective measures by sector. In addition, emergency preparedness exercises have been further strengthened by initiating a massive combined exercise participated in by the central government once a year instead of once in five years.

Emergency exercises are held, in which on-site and off-site emergency preparedness organizations must participate, as follows:

• Unified exercises, in which the emergency organizations of nuclear installations, off-site emergency organizations, and central and local governments shall participate, are held under the supervision of the NSSC on a national level once every five years.

• Integrated emergency exercises, in which all on-site and off-site emergency organizations shall participate, are held at the nuclear installation site once every four years.

• On-site emergency exercises, in which all emergency units in nuclear power stations of two units shall participate, are held every year.

• Drills, in which each emergency unit in a nuclear installation shall participate, are held every quarter.

• At newly constructed nuclear installations, an initial exercise is held to demonstrate the ability of emergency response before the rated thermal output reaches 5%.

The promotion and regulation of nuclear energy in the Republic of Korea were originally managed by a single government agency (the former Ministry of Education, Science and Technology). However, in an effort to enhance regulatory independence and fairness, the Government of the Republic of Korea decided to separate the regulatory responsibilities from the previous nuclear energy administrative system. As a result, the NSSC was established as an independent administrative organization in 2011, responsible for comprehensive nuclear safety to protect people and the environment from nuclear and radioactive threats.

After being established under the President of the Republic of Korea pursuant to the Act on Establishment and Operation of the NSSC in 2011, the NSSC was moved to the Prime Minister’s office following a Cabinet reshuffle in 2014. The NSSC independently regulates overall nuclear safety as a government body and cooperates with ministries such as MSIT, MOTIE, the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT).

Under the regulatory framework for nuclear safety in the Republic of Korea, in accordance with the Act on Establishment and Operation of the Nuclear Safety and Security Commission, the NSSC is responsible for regulatory and administrative activities realted to nuclear safety, which focus on the utilization of reactors and related facilities, fuel cycle facilities, radioactive waste disposal facilities, nuclear materials, and radioactive isotopes/radiation generators. The Nuclear Safety Act (NSA) stipulates that the NSSC has the full authority and sole responsibility when it comes to the safety regulation of nuclear installations.

In addition, for effective nuclear safety regulation on technical areas, KINS, the Korea Institute of Nuclear Non-proliferation and Control (KINAC) and the Korea Foundation of Nuclear Safety (KoFONS) provide the NSSC with expertise and technical support for nuclear safety, security and non-proliferation.

Legislative framework

National laws related to the development, utilization and safety regulation of nuclear energy include the Atomic Energy Promotion Act, the Nuclear Safety Act (NSA) as well as the Electricity Business Act, the Basic Law of Environmental Policy and others, as shown in Table 8.

TABLE 9. LAWS CONCERNING NUCLEAR REGULATION

All provisions on nuclear safety regulation and radiation protection are prescribed by the NSA. The NSA is, therefore, the main law concerning safety regulations of nuclear installations.

The legal framework for nuclear safety, as shown in Fig. 6, consists of four levels: 1) act (the NSA); 2) presidential decree (the enforcement decree of the NSA); 3) ordinance of the Prime Minister (the enforcement regulations of the NSA); 4) and administrative regulation (Technical Standards and the NSSC notice). The NSA stipulates fundamental matters concerning the basis of safety regulation, the NSSC, Comprehensive Plan for Nuclear Safety as well as construction permits and operating licences for nuclear installations.

Detailed standards and guidelines have been developed to utilize regulatory activities in a practical manner based on the standards and requirements prescribed in the act, decrees, ordinance and notices. The industrial standards applicable to nuclear activities have also been endorsed by the regulatory body and are applied to the design and operation of nuclear installations.

FIG. 6. Legal framework for nuclear safety regulation.

The licensing process for NPPs consists of two steps: the construction permit and the operating licence, pursuant to the NSA. When necessary, the licensee may apply for standard design approval and early site approval (Fig. 7).

FIG. 7. Licensing process for nuclear power plants.