Source: Eurostat

The two main domestic energy sources exploited are hydropower and bio energy. Wind power is rapidly expanding, heat pumps capture significant amounts of free heat from the environment (ground, air and water) and peat is another domestic source of energy.

Sweden possesses large amounts of low grade uranium. However, the uranium content in ore is low or very low. According to OECD/NEA and IAEA statistics Sweden’s share of the world’s total quantity of uranium that can be extracted is as less than 1 per cent. However, the economic incitements to exploit such low grade uranium ores have not sufficed, thus no uranium mines are in use in Sweden. All nuclear fuel is therefore imported.

Most of the hydro electric power is located in the north, and the electricity is transported to the south by several large 400 kV lines. All the nuclear power plants are in the southern part of Sweden. Because of the abundance of rivers and lakes, all thermal power plants (nuclear or fossil) are cooled by sea, lake or river water.

1.1.1. Economic Indicators

Table 2 shows the historical Gross Domestic Product (GDP) data.

TABLE 2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

Source:  Eurostat

1.1.2. Energy Situation

Sweden’s energy requirement is covered both by imported energy, primarily oil, coal, natural gas and nuclear fuel, and by domestic energy in the form of hydropower, wind power, ambient heat for heat pumps, wood fuels including municipal waste and residues from the forestry industry (wood chips, bark and black liquor), see Table 3. Originally, all energy was domestic, primarily wood and hydropower. However during the 19^th century, coal began to be imported. Coal came to play an important role up until World War II, when oil and hydropower together became the base of the energy supply. The first oil crisis in 1973 demonstrated the risk of being dependant upon oil.

TABLE 3. ESTIMATED ENERGY RESERVES

Source:  IAEA Energy and Economic Database.

In the 1960's, a decision was made to invest in nuclear power, but it would take until the mid 1970’s before nuclear energy had a significant impact in the energy system. Through the 1980’s and onwards nuclear power and domestic fuels (biomass) where the important sources of energy in Sweden’s oil substitution programme, in addition to energy efficiency measures. Since 1973 the share of oil used in the energy supply has decreased from 71 % to 30 % 2007.  During the same time the use of nuclear power (share of total energy supply) increased from 1 % to 38.5 %.

Total energy supply varies from one year to another due to a number of factors, including variations in temperature and in precipitation. Years that are warmer than the “average year” result in a reduced need for energy supplies, while colder years increase the need.

In comparison with the international situation as a whole, Sweden obtains a relatively large proportion of its energy supplies from renewable energy sources, in the form of bio fuels, hydro power and wind power. In 2007, 43.9 % of the total energy consumption came from renewable energy sources, according to the calculation method of the renewables directive (2009/28/EG).

TABLE 4. ENERGY STATISTICS

1.2.  Energy Policy

In both the long and the short terms, the objective of Swedish energy policy is to ensure reliable supplies of electricity and other forms of energy carriers at prices that are competitive with those of other countries. It is intended to create the right conditions for cost-efficient Swedish energy supply and efficient energy use with minimum adverse effect on health, the environment or climate. The Swedish government also promotes the concept of an eco-efficient economy, strongly advocating energy efficiency, green energy and low carbon technologies as positive drivers, not costs, for welfare and growth.

In the spring of 2009 the Swedish government presented a new and comprehensive energy- and climate policy, which was approved by Parliament in June 2009. This integrated energy- and climate policy is strongly influenced by the common European Union policies in those areas. In several instances the Swedish policies are more ambitious than the targets placed on the country by the EU.

 Targets for 2020 include a 40% reduction (compared to 1990 levels) of climate gas emissions in the non-ETS sector (which is more ambitious than the EU target for Sweden of -17% compared to 2005 levels), 50% renewable energy (EU obligation 49%), 20% higher energy efficiency and 10% renewable energy in the transport sector (common binding EU-target). In addition the European Union has put an obligation on the ETS-sector to reduce its emissions by 21% until 2020. The overall European Union target for climate gas emission reductions is 20% by 2020 and the EU has committed to reduce by 30% if other industrialised countries/regions adopt goals of a similar magnitude.

In addition to these medium term goals, the Swedish government has put up the goal of a vehicle stock that is “independent” of fossil fuels by the year 2030, that fossil fuels should be totally removed from the heating sector by 2020 and the vision that Swedish net-emissions reach zero (0) by 2050.

Operationally these visions, goals and targets have been translated into three action plans that will be further developed during the near future by responsible authorities (e.g. the Swedish Energy Agency and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency):

i)                      Action plan for renewable energy, which includes an increase in the ambitions within the electricity certificate system to a level of approximately 25TWh of new renewable electricity by 2020, and introducing increased ambitions when it comes to finding suitable locations for wind power – meaning that local government should in total have the readiness to introduce 20 TWh wind power on shore and 10 TWh wind power off shore. Specific attention is also given to biogas, as it is a very climate efficient energy carrier, and the Swedish Energy Agency has been given the task of developing a national strategy to boost the already promising introduction of biogas in the energy system.

ii)                    Action plan for energy efficiency, which is focused on fulfilling the Energy Services Directive and other directives in the energy efficiency domain, including Eco-design, Energy Labelling, Energy Performance of buildings, etc primarily by raising awareness but also by introducing targeted energy efficiency programmes towards the industry (especially SMEs) and service sector companies. Heavy industry is already taking part in a voluntary agreement programme as well as, in most cases, the EU-ETS-system.

iii)                   Action plan for a vehicle fleet independent of fossil fuels, where economic incentives will play the major role, e.g. CO-2 taxes penalising the use of fossil fuels and tax rebates for environmentally friendly vehicles. In addition, blending of renewables into petrol and diesel will increase up to levels approved (10% ethanol in petrol and 7% FAME in diesel respectively) by the European Fuel Quality Directive. The Government, via the Swedish Energy Agency and other actors, has also boosted energy and climate related transport sector research and development, aiming at e.g. increasing the share of electricity for transportation purposes. The government is also allocation considerably funding for the continued development of second generation biofuels, e.g. through gasification of biomass and black liquor and cellulosic ethanol.

The Government also stresses the importance of efficient energy markets, and promotes the further development of common electricity and gas markets, both in the North European and the pan-European context. For Swedish conditions, gas markets should be developed in a way that promotes the further introduction of biogas (es) and the government also stresses the importance of CHP, which is already well developed both in the heating and in industry.

Nuclear power will continue to play an important part in the Swedish energy system, and the Government will ask Parliament to consider a change of long-term policy for nuclear power (see below).

1.3. The Electricity System

1.3.1. Decision Making Process

All legislative power in Sweden sits with the Parliament (Riksdag). The Government has the executive power and also the initiative to propose changes in legislation. In addition, the European Union membership has significant impact on rules and regulations in certain matters within the energy sector, as the Commission and the Council has the power to decide on European regulations. Directives, however, are implemented into Swedish legislation through decisions by the Parliament or the Government.

The Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communications is responsible for energy policy and the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for climate policy, the built environment and also for nuclear safety. A special characteristic of the Swedish government is that ministries are quite small and that day-to-day execution of policy is delegated to a wide array of national authorities. Energy authorities include The Swedish Energy Agency, the Energy Markets Inspectorate and the transmission system operator Svenska Kraftnät. Nuclear safety is the responsibility of the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority and climate policy is handled by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (and in parts by the Swedish Energy Agency).

The Swedish electricity market was deregulated on January 1st 1996. The electricity market is thus characterised by the fact that the distribution networks are open to all economic actors and that there is an unbundling of companies in the sector, separating grid services from production and/or sales.  The distribution networks constitute a natural monopoly and the network operation is supervised by the Energy Markets Inspectorate, which also grants permission for the installation of power lines, as well as issuing line concessions.

1.3.2. Structure of the Electricity Sector

Electricity production started early in Sweden. The first generating plants based on hydro power were established in the 1880s. They were small and intended to supply power to industries and communities in the close vicinity. Hundreds of small hydroelectric power stations were constructed. As the technique of transferring power over longer distances developed, it became possible to exploit the larger rivers for distribution of power to the south of the country.

Many of the companies, which today are responsible for the power supply, were formed at this time. The Government became engaged in the production and distribution of power at this stage. In 1906 Parliament granted funds for the first state owned hydropower project and in 1909 the Swedish State Power Board (now Vattenfall AB) was formed. Since that time, the production of power has been divided practically equal between, on the one hand, the Government through the Swedish State Power Board (Vattenfall AB) and, on the other hand, power companies owned by industries, municipalities and other non-governmental bodies.

Since the restructuring of the industry, there have been a number of changes in respect of ownership of the production utilities in the Nordic countries. Gullspång Kraft and Stockholm Energi merged in September 1998 to form Birka Energi subsequently acquired by Fortum, which means that Sweden now has six main parties dominating the electricity production sector. However, on the common Nordic market as a whole, there are several other production utilities that compete. Swedish Vattenfall, Norwegian Statkraft, Finnish Fortum and German E.ON are the major players.

The Electrical Producers

Electricity is generated in plants owned by the state, the municipalities, industries and private companies. Additionally, a small amount of power is generated in small-scale privately owned wind power and hydropower plants. All in all, the state owns approximately 48 percent of the generating capacity, with overseas owners holding approximately 25 percent, the municipalities approximately 20 percent and others approximately 7 percent.

Mergers and acquisitions have gradually reduced the number of large producers during the last 20 years. Through this structural rationalization, the generation of electricity has become strongly concentrated. The five largest power companies accounted for 127 TWh, or approximately 85% percent of Sweden's overall electricity generation, during 2007 (see Table 5).

TABLE 5. THE LARGEST ELECTRICITY PRODUCERS

The Nordic market is merged together in a power exchange called “Nord Pool”.

It is the world's first international commodity Exchange for electrical power. Nord Pool organizes trade in standardized physical (Elspot) and financial power contracts including clearing services to Nordic and northern European participants Being the Nordic Power Exchange, Nord Pool plays a key role as part of the infrastructure of the Nordic electricity power market and thereby provide an efficient, publicly known price on electricity, both in the spot and the derivatives market.

The Transmission of Power

The transmission of power from power plants to customers takes place using the interconnected electricity network. The network is normally divided into three levels; the high-voltage grid and the regional and local networks.

The utility Svenska Kraftnät is responsible for the high-voltage grid, which includes the 220 and 400 kV lines, as well as the bulk of the links with our neighbour-countries. The regional networks are owned and operated by the large power companies’ network companies, and generally include lines of 130-40 kV.

The local networks are owned and operated by about 200 network companies, and normally include lines of a maximum of 20 kV. The number of local network companies is gradually decreasing due to the continuing structural rationalisation of network operations. When network companies become larger, this often entails the local and regional networks being co-ordinated within the same network company.

The total length of the transmission line in Sweden is 475 280 km (10 times around the word), thereof 246 990 km underground and 228 280 km airborne cables. The number of customer connected to the network is 5,2 x 10⁶ and the capital value of the transmission line in Sweden is estimated to about 14 x 10⁹ US$.

1.3.3. Main Indicators

Today, most of Sweden’s electricity is produced by hydropower or nuclear power, with thermal power production (primarily CHP using biomass/black liquor, peat or municipal waste) accounting for only about 9.5 %. Oil-fired cold condensing power plants and gas turbines are only and rarely used as reserve capacity during years with low precipitation and resulting low hydropower production. Restructuring of the electricity market has resulted in several reserve power stations being taken out of use for economic reasons. There are also slightly more then 1000 wind power plants in the country (as of December 2007). However, their contribution to the electricity supply is still very small, about 1 % during 2007.

 The total installed capacity of the Swedish electricity production system was 34.12 GW in December 2007. However, 100 % capacity is never available, and transmission capacity between the north and south of the country is limited. The normal transmission capacity means that 6 300–7 000 MW can be transferred from north to central Sweden, and 3 350 MW from central Sweden to southern Sweden. In 2007, the country produced nearly 149 TW·h, of electricity, of which 44.5 % was produced by hydropower and 45.0 % by nuclear power. Table 6 shows the historical electricity production data and the installed capacities of electrical plants.  Table 7 present some energy related ratios.

TABLE 6. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND INSTALLED CAPACITY

TABLE 7. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

2.  NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1.  Historical Development and current nuclear power organizational structure

2.1.1.  Overview

Nuclear technology started in Sweden in 1947 when AB Atomenergi was constituted to carry out a development programme decided by the Parliament. As a result the first research reactor (R1) went critical in 1954. This reactor was followed by the first prototype nuclear power reactor Ågesta (PHWR) located to a rock cavern in a suburb of Stockholm. The Ågesta reactor was mainly used for district heating and operated from 1964 until 1974 when it was permanently shut down. The first commercial nuclear power reactor Oskarshamn 1 was commissioned in 1972 and was followed by another eleven units sited at Barsebäck, Oskarshamn, Ringhals and Forsmark in the time period up to 1985. The twelve commercial reactors constructed in Sweden comprise nine BWRs (ASEA-ATOM design) and three PWRs (Westinghouse design). As a result of political decisions, the twin BWR units Barsebäck 1 and 2 were finally shut down in 1999 and 2005 respectively.

In 2004, Studsvik Nuclear decided to permanently shut down the two research reactors (R2 and R2-0) at the Studsvik site. They were closed in June 2005. The decision was taken on economical grounds; the licences had recently been extended until 2014, subject to certain conditions. The reactors were mainly used for commercial materials testing purposes, isotope production, and neutron source for research purposes, medical applications and higher education. They are currently under decommissioning.

2.1.2. Current Organizational Chart(s)

The restructuring of the European nuclear power industry, caused by the deregulation and widening of the electrical power markets, has brought about an internationalisation of the, for many years, two dominant Swedish utilities: Vattenfall AB and Sydkraft AB. Vattenfall AB has acquired large power production assets in Poland and Germany, including co-ownership of four German nuclear power plants, and has established itself as a major actor on the European level. The major German utility, E.ON, has acquired a majority of the shares in Sydkraft AB. As a result Sydkraft AB has changed name to E.ON Sverige AB. The Norwegian utility Statkraft has acquired the remaining part of Sydkraft. The Finnish utility Fortum, owner of the Loviisa nuclear power plant, has established itself as a big owner on the Swedish market, with a large share of OKG. The result is a large extent of cross ownership of the Swedish nuclear power plants as shown in figure 3 below.

The structure of the nuclear-electric sector in Sweden is shown in Figure 3.

2.2.  Nuclear Power Plants: Status and Operations

2.2.1.  Status of Nuclear Power Plants

At present, in July 2009, there are 10 nuclear power reactors in operation in Sweden as specified in Table 8. Three power reactors have been permanently shut down, namely Ågesta, Barsebäck 1 and Barsebäck 2.

TABLE 8. STATUS NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

All the BWRs were designed by the domestic vendor ASEA-ATOM (later ABB Atom, now Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB) and all the PWRs, except Ågesta, by Westinghouse USA.

Eight of the power reactors (including Barsebäck 1 and 2) were uprated during the period 1982-1989 between 6-10 % from the original licensed power levels. In recent years new uprating plans has been launched for several NPP's, see sec. 2.2.4.

2.2.2.   Performance of nuclear power plants

Of the total electrical power production in Sweden 145887 GWh(e) 2008, nuclear power contributed 61336 GWh(e) which is about 42 percent. The normal share is close to 50 percent. The energy availability factor 2006-2008 was 80.4 percent and the unit capability factor 82 percent. The unplanned capability loss factor was 9.3 percent.

During 2008 more events than normally happened in the Swedish reactors. Four events in four reactors were significant enough to require permission by SSM for restart. These events involved thermal exhaustion cracking of control rod shafts, a thunderstorm lightning causing electrical disturbances and deficient auxiliary feed-water capacity. Five events were reported at INES level 1. In total 14 scrams happened in four reactors.

See the IAEA Power Reactor Information System for performance data of individual reactors.

2.2.3. Upgrading and plant life management

Despite certain political uncertainties, the Swedish nuclear power programme has entered a dynamic stage. Although the two Barsebäck reactors have been closed, the 10 remaining operating reactors are undergoing extensive modernisation and safety upgrading to be fit for operations for 40 years and beyond. Also the physical protection is being extensively upgraded. The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority controls the upgrading through regulations issued a few years ago. The regulations on design and construction of nuclear power reactors take into account operating experience, safety analyses, development of safety standards and research results. The modernisation programmes are conducted in large projects over several years, either during extended outages or planned longer shut down periods. The programmes basically address the following safety areas:

·         improvement of physical and functional separation

·         diversification of safety functions

·         improvement of the accident management capability

·         improved withstanding of local dynamic effects from pipe breaks

·         improved withstanding of external events

·         improvement of operator aids

·         improvement of environmental qualification and surveillance

Original planning included installations to be finalised around 2013. Several delays of the major installations have been experienced due to; inter alia, problems with delivery of equipment.

2.2.4. Nuclear power development, projections and plans

In connection with the modernisation work, the licensees have applied for uprating of eight reactors. This programme, including measures on the conventional side, will add 1275 MWe to the current nuclear power production capacity as shown in table 3.

The operating licence, issued by the Government, stipulates the highest allowed thermal power level. The licence only applies up to this power level. To further increase the power level, the licensee has to apply to the Government for a new licence in accordance with the Act (1984:3) on Nuclear Activities.

Nine of the power reactors (including Barsebäck 1 and 2) were uprated during the period 1982-1989 between 6-10 % from the original licensed thermal power levels. This was possible due to better use of existing margins, better methods of analysis and improved fuel design. Major plant modifications were not necessary. Current plans for uprating include major uprates of seven reactors and a minor uprating of one reactor. The current power levels as of 2007 and the uprating plans are shown in the table below.

A power increase can affect the facility in a number of different ways and to a varying degree depending on the size of the increase. The conditions and parameters which can affect safety must therefore be identified and analysed in order to establish whether the safety requirements are met with the necessary safety margins.

The Government has so far approved power uprates of Ringhals 1, Ringhals 3 and Oskarshamn 3. Applications have been submitted for Forsmark 1-3, Oskarshamn 2 and Ringhals 4.

The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority has developed a detailed process in several steps for reviewing power uprate cases and to issue the necessary permits after the initial approval by the Government.

TABLE 9. POWER LEVELS OF THE SWEDISH OPERATING REACTORS.

F= Forsmark, O= Oskarshamn, R= Ringhals

Except of allowing power uprates, no firm decisions have been taken about the future of the nuclear power programme in Sweden. However, a major political break through was announced by the four party Government in the fall of 2008. The ruling party coalition had agreed on a policy to allow future replacement of the existing 10 power reactors at the existing sites. The intention is to submit a bill to Parliament before the next election 2010 on a legal change to allow replacement.  Both E.ON and Vattenfall have announced an interest in building new reactors in due time if this is legally and economically feasible. 

2.2.5. Decommissioning: information and plans

So far Sweden has only limited experience from decommissioning of nuclear facilities. It is limited to the decommissioning of the R1 research reactor in Stockholm as well as some smaller test facilities and laboratories in Studsvik.

The most significant nuclear facilities under decommissioning are listed below.

The nuclear power plant Barsebäck ( 2x615 MWe, BWR). Barsebäck 1, which was closed in November 1999, was the first commercial nuclear power unit to be permanently taken out of operation in Sweden. The second unit, Barsebäck 2, was finally shut down on May 31, 2005. The spent fuel has been stored in the CLAB facility in Oskarshamn, and the whole plant is now in a phase of care and maintenance. According to present planning dismantling and demolition operations will start about 2020 and be finished about 2030.

The Ågesta district heating nuclear power reactor (80 MWth, PHWR) was operated between 1964 and 1974 supplying parts of the Stockholm suburb Farsta with heated water. After shut down the spent fuel was transferred to CLAB for interim storage and the plant has since been in a phase of care and maintenance. No decision has yet been taken on the time for dismantling.

The research reactors R2 och R2-0 (MTRs, 50 and 2 MWth) in Studsvik were finally shut down 15 June 2005. Dismantling will start in 2008 and be finished in 2015.

2.3. Supply of NPPs

ABB Atom (former ASEA Atom and currently Westinghouse Electric Sweden) has designed and delivered nine BWRs in Sweden and two in Finland. All the reactors were designed without any license from the US. ABB Atom used to have an in-house capability including architect engineering, but since the 1980s, the utilities in Scandinavia have taken the main responsibility for co-ordination of the nuclear power projects. VBB-VIAK (former VBB) has been responsible for the building design and building construction co-ordination on behalf of some of the utilities or ABB Atom.

The reactor fuel, the control rods and the control rod drives have been manufactured by ABB Atom. The control rooms and most of the electric components have been manufactured by sister organizations to ABB Atom within ABB (earlier ASEA). The turbines and all types of heat exchangers have been manufactured by ABB (former ASEA Stal in Sweden and Brown Boveri Company in Switzerland). Sandvik AB is a Swedish manufacturer of fuel canning tubes and steam generator tubes.

Two Swedish building and civil engineering companies have been involved in the construction of the nuclear power plants in Sweden and Finland: NCC and SKANSKA. In 2000, ABB Atom became part of Westinghouse Electric Company.

In recent years the supply of nuclear services on the Swedish market has concentrated to a few companies: Areva, Westinghouse, General Electric, Siemens and Alstom. 

2.4. Operation of NPPs

The operators and some of the owners of Swedish nuclear power plants are shown in Figure 3. Some additional information about the power utilities is given in Table 9. It should be mentioned that all the operators are relatively independent of their mother organisations when it comes to technical capability.

The Swedish nuclear power plant operators jointly own the following support organisations:

KSU AB (Kärnsäkerhet och Utbildning AB): provides operational training, including simulator training, on a contracting basis for all Swedish nuclear power plants. KSU also analyses international operational experience and provides the results to the Swedish operators. In addition KSU publishes regular reports about operational experience from Sweden and provides other energy- and nuclear related information to politicians and decision makers. KSU also represents Sweden in WANO.

SQC (Swedish Qualification Centre): a company for independent qualification of NDT systems to be used by NDT-companies in Swedish nuclear power plants.

ERFATOM: a cooperation between the Swedish and Finnish BWRs operators and Westinghouse Electric AB (former ABB Atom) to carry out experience feedback analysis of events at Swedish BWRs.

SKB (Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB): a company jointly owned by the nuclear power companies for management and disposal of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste. SKB owns and operates the intermediate storage of spent fuel (CLAB) in Oskarshamn and the repository for low and medium level waste (SFR) in Forsmark. SKB is also responsible for the R&D-work in connection with developing a technical concept and siting of a repository for the spent fuel, including the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory.

2.5.  Fuel Cycle and Waste Management

Swedish utilities import all their need of uranium and enrichment services. Westinghouse (previously ABB Atom) manufactures reactor fuel both for BWRs and PWRs. Half of the deliveries are to utilities abroad. The Swedish utilities buy part of their fuel elements from abroad.

Studsvik Nuclear AB is still an important contractor for materials testing and nuclear fuel investigations. The materials testing reactors have been shut down but there is a co-operation with the Halden reactor in Norway. Also, a hot cell laboratory is maintained. Studsvik is also expanding its business in the decommissioning- and waste treatment field.

Waste management practices in Sweden currently include the repository for radioactive operational waste (SFR), shallow land burials, the intermediate storage for spent fuel (CLAB), the transportation system and clearance. All facilities for waste and spent fuel management, unless part of a nuclear power plant or the Studsvik facility, are owned and operated by SKB.

SFR is a repository for short lived LILW resulting from the operation of Swedish nuclear reactors. In addition small amounts of radioactive waste from hospitals, research institutions and industry are disposed of in SFR-1. SFR-1 consists of four rock caverns and a silo. The facility is situated at 50 m depth, in the bedrock 5 m under the Baltic Sea level. Construction started in 1983 and it was taken into operation in 1988. The total capacity is 63 000 m³. By the end of 2006 a total volume of 31 250 m³ had been used. The nuclear power plants at Ringhals, Forsmark and Oskarshamn as well as the Studsvik site have shallow land burials for short-lived very low-level waste (< 300 kBq/kg). Each of these burials is licensed for a total activity of 100 – 200 GBq (the highest allowed level according to the legislation is 10 TBq, of which a maximum of 10 GBq may consist of alpha-active substances).

Spent nuclear fuel from all Swedish nuclear power reactors is stored in a central interim storage (CLAB) situated close to the Oskarshamn nuclear power plant. The fuel is stored in water pools in rock caverns at 25 m depth in the bedrock. Construction started in 1980 and it was taken into operation in 1985. The original total storage capacity was 5 000 tonnes of spent fuel. CLAB has recently been expanded with a second rock cavern and water pool. The capacity after the expansion will be sufficient for storing all spent fuel from the nuclear power reactors, approximately 8 000 tonnes.

All transportation of spent nuclear fuel and nuclear waste is by sea, since all the nuclear facilities are situated at the coast. The transportation system has been in operation since 1982 and consists of the ship M/S Sigyn, transport casks and containers, and terminal vehicles for loading and unloading.

Although clearance is not a ”facility” it is an important component in the waste management system. Material may be cleared for unrestricted use or for disposal as conventional non-radioactive waste. For example, in 2004 approximately 600 tonnes were cleared for disposal at municipal landfills. In addition 500 tonnes of scrap metal    (< 500 Bq/kg) were cleared for recycling.

Four major facilities remain to be designed, sited, constructed and licensed. Namely a plant for the encapsulation of spent nuclear fuel, a final repository for spent fuel, a repository for long-lived low and intermediate level waste, and a repository for waste from decommissioning and dismantling the nuclear power plants. An application for the encapsulation plant was submitted by SKB 2006.

The development work for the final repository of spent fuel has continued according to plans. In June 2009 SKB decided that an application for a repository for spent nuclear fuel will be based on that the repository will be constructed in the municipality of Östhammar, close to the Forsmark site. An application to construct the repository is expected 2010.

2.6. Research and Development

2.6.1. R&D organizations and institutes

Most of the research and development in the field of nuclear safety is directed by the SSM and the nuclear power operators. It is performed at universities - also abroad - Westinghouse Electric Sweden, Studsvik, at the Vattenfall central laboratory in Älvkarleby and at other research institutes.

Research to support nuclear safety supervision is focused on a number of strategic areas such as safety assessment, safety analysis, reactor technology, material and fuel questions, human factors, emergency preparedness and non-proliferation.

To fulfil these research needs, SSM contracts universities and consulting companies and a dominating share goes to research organisations in Sweden. However, since national resources are limited, Sweden has, for a long time, actively participated in international research. There has been a clear trend for many years that international co-operation is increasing, also for safety research. SSM is prioritising co-operation on research conducted in the OECD/NEA and is participating in a large number of projects organised in this framework. An example is the Halden Project in Norway, which conducts research of importance for fuel, materials and human factors. An example of an OECD/NEA international project performed in Sweden is the fuel project SCIP (Studsvik Cladding Integrity Project). Since Sweden joined the EU, the importance of joint European work has increased. SSM is itself actively participating and supporting Swedish organisations participating in European Commission projects and intends to support such projects in the future. Furthermore, in the safeguards area, important joint work is performed in ESARDA (European Safeguards Research and Development Association).

In the field of radiation protection SSM supports research within radioecology, radiation protection of power plant workers, emergency preparedness, nuclear waste matters, and questions related to risk perception and acceptance of waste disposal. About 25% of the radiation protection research budget is used for non-nuclear research, i.e. mainly medical and technical applica­tions and uses of radiation, and for non-ionising radiation (UV, electromagnetic fields). Newly allocated research funds will be used to finance advanced research po­sitions in radiation biology, radiation dosimetry, and radioecology at univer­sities. The primary focus is to maintain competence in radiation protection. Part of the new funds will also be used to give research grants after applica­tion.

SKB is conducting a large research programme for developing methods for safe disposal of spent fuel. The research programme is conducted in collaboration with universities, institutes of technology, research institutions in Sweden and abroad.

2.6.2. Development of advanced and new generation nuclear reactor systems

No planning or research is currently performed regarding new nuclear power plants in Sweden.

2.7. International Co-operation

The international nuclear safety cooperation has a large and increasing volume. SSM is involved in about 140 international groups at different levels. Most of the reactor safety cooperation takes place within the frameworks of IAEA, OECD/NEA and EU, but also in connection with the international conventions ratified by Sweden and within associations as the Western European Nuclear Regulators´Association (WENRA) and the International Nuclear Regulators´Association (INRA). In addition to these multilateral contexts, SSM has bilateral agreements with a number of countries to exchange information and to cooperate on technical issues as agreed. Sweden has a relatively high profile in the international technical groups. SSM considers the active international involvement to be important for the quality of the national safety and radiation protection work as well as to contribute to the development of international standards and the international knowledge base. In the field of radiation protection Sweden has been active for many years in the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and working groups of NEA, IAEA and the EU. International agreements exist with authorities and technical support bodies in Europe and Asia as well as in the US in areas such as emergency preparedness, occupational exposure, environmental radiological protection and radioactive waste management. Sweden is also a member of ISOE (Information System on Occupational Exposure).

The Swedish utilities are involved in international co-operation through membership in WANO, in owners group associations of the major European and US vendors, and by participation in the European Utilities Requirements project, IAEA activities, and various task forces representing most of the disciplines in nuclear facilities.

KSU analyses and evaluates operating experience gained at other nuclear power plants worldwide that can benefit the operation of the Swedish plants. KSU is also the main communication channel between the Swedish utilities and WANO.

SKB has a broad network of international contacts. Formal co-operation agreements exist with the following organizations:

The following organizations have signed agreements of participation in the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory project: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL); Power Reactor & Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) of Japan; Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) of Japan; ANDRA of France; TVO of Finland; NIREX of UK; USDOE and Nagra of Switzerland.

2.8. Human resources development

The academic education in nuclear technology in Sweden is mainly concentrated to the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm (KTH), Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg (CTH) and Uppsala University (UU). At KTH the Swedish Centre of Nuclear Technology has existed since 1992. From having been mainly oriented towards KTH and support to doctoral students, the Centre has now as its aim also to support professor- and lecturer posts and post-graduate education in the nuclear field at the three universities mentioned above. Eleven professorships (of which three are vacant currently) with a specific nuclear technology or human factors profile and nine lectureships exist in Sweden for higher nuclear education and research. About 300 students per year have attended the nuclear courses at the mentioned universities over the last years.

Sweden has taken a systematic approach to maintain basic academic resources for higher nuclear education and research. This is done by an agreement between the Swedish nuclear industry and SSM to support the Swedish Centre of Nuclear Technology economically during several years. The present agreement is valid for the years 2008-2013. An assessment of the present agreement is ongoing and will be finished this year. 

3.  NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1. Safety Authority

Since 1 July 2008 Sweden has a new integrated regulatory body for nuclear safety and radiation protection; the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (SSM). SSM is a merger of the two earlier regulatory bodies; the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate (SKI) and the Radiation Protection Authority (SSI). SSM has taken over all the missions and tasks of the two earlier authorities. The main motive for the merger was a general ambition by the Government to make civil service more efficient by reducing the number of authorities but also to enhance and reinforce the supervision of both nuclear- and non-nuclear activities with radiation.

SSM has a staff of 240 and is organised under a Director General in five main departments: Nuclear Power Plant Safety, Radioactive Materials, Radiation Protection, International Affairs and Administration.

SSM’s roles and responsibilities are defined in the Ordinance (2008:452) with instruction for the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority. The Ordinance states that SSM is the central administrative authority for radiation protection and nuclear safety, including issues for protection of people and the environment against harmful effects of ionising and non-ionising radiation, safety of nuclear activities and nuclear non-proliferation. Hence, the area of responsibility includes regulation of all nuclear activity areas in Sweden including physical protection and transport issues. Generally, the authority shall work to actively promote a better radiation protection and improved nuclear safety. SSM is mandated to issue legally binding regulations within its activity areas. In addition, the following more detailed tasks are mentioned in the Ordinance:

·         handle certain financial issues with regard to future costs for residual products from nuclear activities and liaison with the Nuclear Waste Fund,

·         responsibility for the national metrology laboratory for ionising radiation,

·         administer the national dose register and issue dose passports,

·         contribute to development of national competence within the activity area,

·         provide information to the public within the activity area,

·         handle international issues within the activity area,

·         coordinate national emergency preparedness within the activity area,

·         provide advise on radiation protection and decontamination in cases of emergency,

·         maintain and manage a national expert organisation in cases of emergency,

·         provide technical advice to responsible authorities for protective actions in cases of emergency

SSM is further involved in international development co-operation with Russia, Ukraine, Georgia and Armenia.

SSM reports to Government through the Ministry of Environment.  

Licensing Process

The Act (1984:3) on Nuclear Activities includes the basic legal requirements on licensing, and the legal sanctions to be imposed on anyone who conducts nuclear activities without a licence. For major installations and activities, the licence is granted by the Government upon a written recommendation by the regulatory body. An application for a permit to construct, possess or operate a nuclear installation shall - along with the particular documents concerning construction and nuclear safety - contain an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Procedures regarding the EIA are laid down in the Environmental Code. These provisions are also applicable in the licensing procedures according to the Act on Nuclear Activities. The EIA aims to facilitate an overall assessment of the planned operation's effects on the environment, health and management of natural resources, thus providing a better basis for the decision.

SSM is given the mandate to decide upon licence conditions for nuclear safety and radiation protection. Previously this mandate was given by the Government in every particular licence, but according to a legal amendment on 1 July 2006, SSM now has a continuous and general mandate to decide such conditions for all sorts of licences issued under the Act on Nuclear Activities.

For all the existing Swedish nuclear power plants, the licences are valid without time limit, although licensing conditions can be limited in time and function as control stations. If the licensee complies with all legally binding safety requirements, a prolongation of the licence cannot be denied in principle.

If a licensee fails to comply with conditions attached to the licence or with safety obligations arising in any other manner under the Act on Nuclear Activities, the Government or the regulatory body has the authority to revoke the licence altogether. The decision lies with the authority that has issued the particular licence. Revoking a licence for other reasons than safety, as in the Barsebäck 1 and 2 cases, requires a special law.

There is a legally binding requirement to conduct a periodic safety review of every major nuclear installation every 10 years of operation. The purpose with this review and its regulatory assessment is to determine whether the installation still complies with all regulations and licensing conditions, and that safety is developing as required. SSM regards the periodic safety reviews as time limited licensing conditions.

Hence, the concept of “Life time extension” has no formal meaning in Sweden. The expression “40 years technical life time” is used in a non-formal way, mostly by the licensees in their long term planning. The plants will be made fit for 40 years operation and beyond. The background of this expression is that on-going and planned modernisations are assumed to increase the technical lifetime of the plants. Originally, when designing the plants, 40 years was an assumed technical lifetime, “guaranteed” with large margins for the major passive structures and components. Today, based on international operational experience, technical lifetime for similar rector designs is expected to be 50 to 60 years. The investment analyses for the planned modernisations are also based on lifetimes of 50 or 60 years, although investments will be profitable even with lifetimes of 40 years.

3.2. Main National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power

The following five Acts constitute the basic nuclear legislation of Sweden:

• The Act (1984:3) on Nuclear Activities,
• The Radiation Protection Act (1988:220),
• The Environmental Code (1998:808),
• The Act (2006:647) on Financing of the Management of Residual Products from Nuclear Activities,
• The Nuclear Liability Act (1968:45).

With exception for the Nuclear Liability Act, all Acts are supplemented by a number of ordinances and other secondary legislation which contain more detailed provisions for particular aspects of the regime.

Operation of a nuclear facility can only be conducted in accordance with a licence issued under the Act on Nuclear Activities and a licence issued under the Environmental Code. Thus, operation of a nuclear facility requires two separate licences.

The Act on Nuclear Activities is mainly concerned with issues of safety and security, while the Environmental Code is focusing on the general environmental aspects and impacts of "environmentally hazardous activities as to which Nuclear Activities are defined.

The Act on Radiation Protection aims to protect people, animals and the environment from the harmful effects of radiation. The Act is of particular importance as regards protection of employees involved in radiological operations.

The Act on Financing of the Management of Residual Products from Nuclear Activities contains provisions concerning the future costs of spent fuel disposal, decommissioning of reactors and research in the field of nuclear waste. Means for that purpose have to be available when needed.

The Nuclear Liability Act implements Sweden's obligations as a Party to the 1960 Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the 1963 Brussels Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention.

Other relevant Acts are the Act on Control of Export of Dual-use Products and Technical Assistance (2000:1064) and the Act (2000:140) on Inspections according to International Agreements on Non-proliferation of Nuclear weapons. Emergency preparedness matters are regulated by a separate Act (2003:778) and Ordinance (2003:789) on protection against accidents with serious potential consequences for human health and the environment.

After the formation of SSM, a new series of regulations SSMFS was created. In this series all regulations formerly issued by SKI and SSI have been re-issued as SSM regulations (see: www.ssm.se). Also as a consequence of the formation of SSM, the Government has appointed a special investigator to review and propose changes in the Act on Nuclear Activities and the Radiation Protection Act with a possible objective to merge the two acts and introduce the concept of Radiation Safety into the legislation. Decisions about this are expected earliest 2011.

Financing of decommissioning and waste disposal

The holder of a licence for a nuclear facility which generate or has generated residual products must pay a fee to the Nuclear Waste Fund, to cover the licensee’s share of the total costs for the management and disposal of spent nuclear fuel and/or nuclear waste. The regulatory authority (in this case SSM) appointed by the Government reviews the cost calculations and submits a proposal for the size of the fees to the Government. The size of the fee is decided by the Government for a period of three years and is individual for each utility. The purpose of the Fund is to cover all expenses incurred for the safe handling and disposal of spent nuclear fuel, as well as dismantling nuclear facilities and disposing of the decommissioning waste. The Fund must also finance SKB’s R&D.

The management of the Nuclear Waste Fund is the responsibility of a separate government agency, the Nuclear Waste Fund.

4. CURRENT ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENTS ON NUCLEAR POWER

4.1. Energy Policy

The energy bill in the year of 1997 stated that there should be no exact time frame for the phasing out of all nuclear capacity in Sweden. The phasing was to be made in a way that the energy system could handle. In the bill was stated that the two reactors in Barsebäck was going to be closed. The reactors were shut down 30/11 1999 respectively 31/5 2005. Today there is no reactor producing electricity at the Barsebäck site.

This spring the Government sent an energy bill to the Parliament. The focus in the bill is the close relation between energy and climate issues. For the transport system the policy focuses on successively increasing energy efficiency in the transport system, breaking the dependence on fossil fuels and reducing the impact on the climate. By 2030, Sweden should have a vehicle stock that is independent of fossil fuels.

Swedish electricity production today is essentially based on only two sources – hydropower and nuclear power. To reduce vulnerability and increase security of electricity supply, a third pillar that reduces dependence on nuclear power and hydropower should be developed. To achieve this, cogeneration, wind power and other renewable power production must together account for a significant proportion of electricity production.

The vision for the future is that by 2050, Sweden will have a sustainable and resource-efficient energy supply and no net emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The bill passed the Parliament in June this year.

The bill also implies a new direction for the nuclear energy policy. The main changes were that the transitional period during which nuclear power will be in use will be extended by allowing new construction at existing sites within the framework of a maximum of ten reactors. The reactors in Barsebäck will not be allowed to replace. It will be possible to grant permits for successively replacing current reactors as they reach the end of their technological and economic life. The Nuclear Phase-Out Act will be annulled. The “Nuclear Power Decommisioning Act” became law in January 1998. The Act allows the government, within a specified framework, to decide that the right to operate a nuclear power plant will cease to apply at a certain point in time. Such a decision infers the right to compensation by the state for losses incurred.

The prohibition against new construction in the Nuclear Activities Act will be lifted. An assessment of the impact on society of new nuclear power projects is to be undertaken in connection with the issue of permits. Security of supply will be one of the cornerstones of these assessments. Permits for new reactors will be assessed on the basis of legislative requirements for the best available technology. An inquiry has been appointed to design nuclear power legislation that enables a controlled generational shift in Swedish nuclear power. The inquiry is taking place now and the task is to create a proposal for the new legislation to be able to put the new nuclear policy in to force.

The Government clearly stated that  there will be no central government support for nuclear power, in the form of direct or indirect subsidies. The nuclear liability legislation will be adapted to the updated Paris Convention and its Additional Protocols. This means that reactor owners must take greater responsibility for the risks of nuclear power. The issue of unlimited liability is being examined in connection with the inquiry on new nuclear power legislation.

In 1992, SKB presented a comprehensive programme for final disposal of spent nuclear fuel. The report describes a method and a preferred alternative for encapsulation and final disposal in a deep repository. Experts at universities and specialist companies as well as the regulatory authorities thoroughly scrutinized and analyzed the plans presented in the report.  The plans were then accepted by the government in December 1993 as a basis for SKB’s future work in the field.

During 1994, SKB conducted feasibility studies as an initial step in the siting of the deep repository. Two studies, both at municipalities in the far north of Sweden, were completed.  However, in order to obtain a broader body of data, SKB have continued to conduct feasibility studies at other sites as well.

SKB proceeded on two of the sites with detailed characterization in tunnels to obtain the necessary supporting material for an application for a licence to build the deep repository.

In 2009 SKB announced their intent to file an application for building the final repository in Forsmark, close to the existing nuclear power plant. At the site there are today three nuclear power plants and a final repository for short-lived radioactive waste. The final application is expected to be submitted in 2010. The application will then be thoroughly scrutinized by the relevant authorities.

All the costs for managing and disposing of Sweden’s nuclear waste shall be paid by the owners of the nuclear power plants. This also applies to the costs of decommissioning the nuclear power plants and disposing of the decommissioning waste.

To ensure that adequate funds will be available in the future, a special charge is levied on nuclear power production. It is paid to the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, SSM, and is deposited in interest-bearing accounts in the Bank of Sweden.

4.2. Privatisation and deregulation

The internal market in electricity, which has been progressively implemented throughout the Community since 1999, aims to deliver real choice for all consumers of the European Union, be they citizens or businesses, new business opportunities and more cross-border trade, so as to achieve efficiency gains, competitive prices, and higher standards of service, and to contribute to security of supply and sustainability. Directive 2003/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2003 concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity has made a significant contribution towards the creation of such an internal market in electricity. A secure supply of electricity is of vital importance for the development of European society, the implementation of a sustainable climate change policy, and the fostering of competitiveness within the internal market. To that end, cross-border interconnections should be further developed in order to secure the supply of all energy sources at the most competitive prices to consumers and industry within the Community.

A well-functioning internal market in electricity should provide producers with the appropriate incentives for investing in new power generation, including in electricity from renewable energy sources, paying special attention to the most isolated countries and regions in the Community's energy market. A well-functioning market should also provide consumers with adequate measures to promote the more efficient use of energy for which a secure supply of energy is a precondition.

In order to further improve the function of the electricity market the European Parliament and of the Council have in June 2009 adopted new common rules for the internal market in electricity.

Restructuring of the electricity markets involves a change from national monopolies, with central planning, to markets exposed to competition. Electricity becomes a form of energy raw material, which can be traded and supplied across borders. Company takeovers in the electricity markets in the Nordic countries have attracted considerable attention in recent years.

REFERENCES

Appendix 1

INTERNATIONAL (MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL) AGREEMENTS

MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS

• Exchange of ministerial notes between Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway about guiding principles for contacts about nuclear safety concerning nuclear plants at the borders between Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. (SÖ 1977:48)

·       Agreement between the government of Sweden and the government of Switzerland for co-operation in the Peaceful uses of Atomic Energy.  (SÖ 1969:1)

·       Treaty with Finland about co-operation in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy.  (SÖ 1970:8)

·       Agreement with the Soviet Union (now with Russia) about co-operation in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy.  (SÖ 1970:9)

·       Agreement with Canada concerning the uses of nuclear material, equipment, plants and information transferred between Sweden and Canada.  (SÖ 1981:89-90)

·       Agreement with Australia on conditions and control for nuclear transfers for peaceful purposes between Australia and Sweden.  (SÖ 1982:86-87)

·       Exchange of notes with Finland in the field of nuclear power (SÖ 1983:1)

·       Agreement with the United States of America about the peaceful use of nuclear power.  (SÖ 1984:66)

·       Treaty with Denmark about exchange of information about the Barsebäck Nuclear Power Plant.  (SÖ 1986:15)

·       Treaty with Denmark about exchange of information and notice about Swedish and Danish nuclear facilities etc.  (SÖ 1987:12)

·       Treaty with Finland about exchange of information and notice about Swedish and Finnish nuclear facilities etc.  (SÖ 1987:16)

·       Treaty with Norway about exchange of information and notice about Swedish and Norwegian nuclear facilities etc.  (SÖ 1987:26)

·       Treaty with the Soviet Union (now with Russia) about notice in the case of a nuclear power accident and about exchange of information about nuclear facilities.  (SÖ 1988:5)

·       Treaty with Germany about notice in the case of a nuclear power accident and about exchange of information about nuclear power facilities.

Appendix 2

DIRECTORY OF THE MAIN ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES