TABLE 2:
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Average annual growth rate
(%) |
|
|
1970 |
1980 |
1991 |
2000 |
2005 |
2006
3) |
2000
to
2006 |
|
GDP |
360,600 |
788,520 |
1,534,600 |
2,062,500 |
2,241,000 |
2,307,200 |
+
1.9 |
|
GDP |
193,406 |
849,288 |
1,770,370 |
1,900,221 |
2,786,967 |
2,896,920 |
+
7.3
4) |
|
GDP
(millions of constant 2000 US$) |
|
|
|
1,900,221 |
1,961,788 |
2,900,000 |
+
7.3
4) |
|
GDP per capita
(PPP
2)
US$/capita) |
|
|
|
25920 |
30496 |
31950 |
+
4.1
4) |
|
GDP per capita |
3,036 |
13,765 |
22,130 |
23,089 |
33,822 |
35,157 |
+
52.3
4) |
1)
Numbers in brackets refer to
data from the then-GDR.
2)
PPP: Purchasing Power Parity
3)
preliminary data
4)
influenced by value of Euro as compared to US Dollar
Source: Country Information [1].
1.1. Energy Information
1.1.1. Estimated energy
reserves (fossil fuels, hydro sources and uranium)
|
|
Estimated energy reserves
(Exajoule) |
||||||
|
|
Solid |
Liquid |
Gas |
Uranium |
Hydro |
Other renewable |
Total |
|
Total amount in place
|
1,050 |
2.18 |
8.16 |
1) |
0.4 |
n.d.2) |
1,060 |
1) 74 000 t
2) n.d.: not determined
Source: Country Information [2] and World Energy
Council.
1.1.2. Energy Statistics
See Table 4
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Average annual
growth rate
(%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2000 |
|
|
1970
6) |
1980 |
1991 |
2000 |
2005
7) |
2006
7) |
to |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2006 |
|
Energy consumption
1)
2)
(EJ) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- Total
|
9.87
(3.06) |
11.35(3.54) |
14.61 |
14.40 |
14.47 |
14.57 |
+ 0.2 |
|
- Solids 3) |
3.73
(2.60) |
3.41
(2.48) |
4.84 |
3.57 |
3.44 |
3.50 |
- 0.3 |
|
- Liquids |
5.24
(0.41) |
5.44
(0.62) |
5.53 |
5.50 |
5.15 |
5.18 |
- 1.0 |
|
- Gases |
0.53
(0.02) |
1.86
(0.30) |
2.41 |
2.99 |
3.24 |
3.29 |
+ 1.6 |
|
- Nuclear |
0.06
(0.01) |
0.48
(0.13) |
1.61 |
1.85 |
1.78 |
1.83 |
- 0.2 |
|
- Hydro + Wind
4) |
0.25
(0.01) |
0.06
(0.00) |
0.05 |
0.13 |
0.17 |
0.18 |
+ 5.1 |
|
- Others 5) |
0.06
(0.01) |
0.10
(0.01) |
0.18 |
0.36 |
0.72 |
0.60 |
+ 11.1 |
|
Energy production
1)
(EJ) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- Total |
5.15 (2.43) |
5.11 (2.55) |
6.97 |
5.94 |
5.87 |
5.68 |
- 0.7 |
|
- Solids 3) |
4.13
(2.37) |
3.70
(2.30) |
4.44 |
2.54 |
2.37 |
2.23 |
- 2.0 |
|
- Liquids |
0.32
(0.01) |
0.20
(0.00) |
0.15 |
0.13 |
0.15 |
0.15 |
+ 2.6 |
|
- Gases |
0.41
(0.02) |
0.59
(0.11) |
0.57 |
0.65 |
0.60 |
0.59 |
- 1.5 |
|
- Nuclear |
0.06
(0.01) |
0.48
(0.13) |
1.61 |
1.85 |
1.78 |
1.83 |
- 0.2 |
|
- Hydro |
0.17
(0.01) |
0.06
(0.00) |
0.05 |
0.09 |
0.08 |
0.07 |
- 3.7 |
|
- Wind |
– |
– |
0.00 |
0.03 |
0.10 |
0.11 |
+ 44.4 |
|
- Others 5) |
0.06
(0.01) |
0.10
(0.01) |
0.15 |
0.35 |
0.80 |
0.70 |
+ 16.7 |
|
Net import
1)
(EJ) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- Total |
4.72
(0.63) |
6.24
(0.99) |
7.64 |
8.46 |
8.60 |
8.89 |
+ 0.8 |
|
- Solids
3) |
–0.40 (0.23) |
-
0.29 (0.18) |
0.40 |
1.03 |
1.07 |
1.27 |
+ 3.9 |
|
- Liquids |
4.92
(0.40) |
5.24
(0.62) |
5.38 |
5.37 |
5.00 |
5.03 |
- 1.1 |
|
- Gases |
0.12
(0.00) |
1.27
(0.19) |
1.84 |
2.34 |
2.64 |
2.70 |
+ 2.6 |
|
- electricity
|
0.08
(0.00) |
0.02
(0.00) |
0.02 |
- 0.28 |
- 0.11 |
- 0.11 |
8) |
1)
Numbers in brackets refer to data from the then-GDR.
2)
Energy consumption = Primary energy production + Net import (Import-Export) of
secondary energy
3) Solid fuels include coal and lignite
4) Wind
power since 1995, including solar
5)
Others are e.g. firewood, biosolids, waste, geothermal, etc.
6)
Data from 1970 according to substitution method, later data according to
efficiency method
7) preliminary data
8)
From 2000 to 2006 the export of electricity declined
Source: Country Information [3] [4]
1.2. Energy Policy
The energy policy falls, within the Federal Government, under the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Economy and Technology (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie - BMWi). Market adoption of renewable energy sources and research on renewables is overseen by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit - BMU).
The major aims of energy policy are energy security, economic efficiency
and environmental sustainability. As
To support economic efficiency the liberalisation of electricity and gas
market is ongoing. The Federal Government installed in 2005 a network regulator
(the Bundesnetzagentur), which ensures
open access for new entrants and creates robust and competitive energy markets.
Besides increasing the use of renewables for energy production the Federal Government has begun a large number of initiatives to use energy more economically and more rationally. To meet the Kyoto Protocol the renewables are rapidly growing up, biofuels will reduce the reliance on imported oil, the energy efficiency targets have been set up and funding for research and development for renewables and efficiency have been established.).
In 2001 the Federal Government and the energy utilities agreed to
phase-out nuclear energy use for commercial power generation and the Atomic
Energy Act was amended accordingly in 2002. Each nuclear power plant is assigned
a residual electricity output such that total output corresponds to an average
32-year lifetime. As output allowances can be legally transferred between power
stations, it is not possible to forecast precise shut-down dates.
1.3. The Electricity System
1.3.1. Electricity Policy and decision making process-including planning the electricity system.
Since 1998
The new Energy Industry Act (Energiewirtschaftsgesetz,
in force since 13 July 2005) together with secondary legislation enacted under
it specifies a new regulatory framework governing grid access and transmission
fees for electricity and gas. The objective is to provide the public with a
secure, affordable, consumer-friendly, efficient and environmentally compatible
supply of grid electricity and gas. Enforcement lies with the network regulator
(the Bundesnetzagentur), which
regulates electricity, gas, telecommunications, postal and railway networks
spanning two or more federal states and network operators with more than 100,000
customers. Network operators with fewer than 100,000 customers are regulated by
regulatory agencies in the individual German federal states. The main features
of the new legal framework relate to network access and transit fees, and
separating network operation from companies' other activities. The network
regulator, a public agency under the Federal Ministry of Economics and
Technology, has a clear legal mandate to keep down transit fees, while assuring
security of supply. Network operators are required to operate a secure,
reliable, high-capacity energy supply network, to maintain this network and to
expand it in line with demand.
1.3.2. Structure of
electric power sector - generation, transmission and distribution network
O Generation
Four large companies dominate electricity generation in
Though demand for electricity is forecast to remain relatively flat,
construction projects for power plants using both conventional fuels and
renewables are currently in the planning, preparation or building phase in order
to replace existing plants, particularly nuclear plants slated for closure.
O Transmission
Germany's transmission grid is made of over 110,000 km of high-voltage transmission lines. The four companies dominating electricity generation each own and operate their own transmission systems via legally unbundled companies (E.ON Netz, RWE Transportnetz, EnBW Transportnetze and Vattenfall Europe Transmission). They must provide non-discriminating third-party access to their networks for all generators. All decisions on grid access and access fees can be appealed to the network regulator (the Bundesnetzagentur) or the respective regional regulator (Länderregulierungsbehörde).
Under the Renewable Energy Sources Act, grid system operators are required to connect plants generating electricity from renewable sources to their system at standard rates and to guarantee priority purchase and transmission of all electricity by such plants. Grid fees, which cover transmission operations and investments, are charged to distributors companies, which pass them on the end-use customers via retail rates. Transmission system operators charge distribution companies via a "postage stamp" rate, at a single flat rate per kW of maximum demand.
Germany's
network is linked to its neighbours' power grids via cross-border connections.
Interconnection capacity in 2005 was 15 to 17 GW, equivalent to about 16% of
total capacity.
O Distribution
There are over 400
distribution network operators in
1.3.3. Main indicators -
table on electricity production and installed generating capacity and a table on
energy related ratios
See Table 5 and Table 6
For further information regarding the electricity system see [7]. Consumption AND CAPACITY
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Average annual growth rate (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2000 |
|
|
1970 |
1980 |
1991 |
2000 |
2005 |
2006 |
to |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2006 |
|
Capacity of electrical plants
1)
(GW) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
Thermal 2) |
42.0 (11.3) |
67.5 (16.5) |
92.2 |
83.9 |
77.5 |
77.2 |
-
1.3 |
|
-
Nuclear |
0.9 (0.1) |
8.7 (1.7) |
23.7 |
23.6 |
21.4 |
21.2 |
- 1.7 |
|
-
Hydro |
4.7 (0.7) |
6.5 (1.5) |
8.7 |
9.0 |
10.2 |
10.1 |
+
2.0 |
|
-
Wind |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.1 |
6.1 |
18.4 |
20.6 |
+
39.6 |
|
-
Geothermal |
- |
- |
- |
- |
0.2
4) |
0.2
4) |
|
|
-
Other renewables 3) |
– |
– |
1.2 |
2.1 |
5.0 |
5.1 |
+
23.8 |
|
- Total |
47.6 (12.1) |
82.7 (19.7) |
125.9 |
124.7 |
132.5 |
134.3 |
+ 1.3 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Electricity production
1)
(TWh) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- Thermal 2) |
218.8 (65.9) |
306.4 (85.3) |
359.2 |
346.5 |
370.8 |
372.9 |
+ 1.3 |
|
- Nuclear |
2.7 (0.5) |
41.4 (11.9) |
147.4 |
169.6 |
163.0 |
167.4 |
- 0.2 |
|
- Hydro |
16.2 (1.3) |
17.4 (1.7) |
19.2 |
29.4 |
26.7 |
26.8 |
- 1.5 |
|
- Wind |
0.0 |
0.0 |
0.1 |
9.5 |
27.2 |
30.7 |
+
37.2 |
|
- Geothermal |
- |
- |
- |
- |
0.2
5) |
0.4
5) |
|
|
- Other renewables
3)
|
– |
– |
14.3 |
21.5 |
32.9 |
39.1 |
+
13.6 |
|
- Total |
237.7 (67.7) |
365.2 (98.9) |
540.2 |
576.5 |
620.6 |
636.8 |
+ 1.7 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Electricity consumption
(TWh) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- Total |
|
|
539.6 |
579.6 |
612.1 |
617.0 |
+
1.1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1)
Numbers in brackets refer to
data from the then-GDR.
2)
Thermal includes hard coal,
lignite, gas and oil
3)
Solar, biomass etc.
4)
MW
5)
GWh
Source: Country Information [3] [4].
|
|
1970 |
1980 |
1991 |
2000 |
2005 |
2006 |
|
Energy consumption per capita
1)
(GJ/capita) |
162 (179) |
184 (212) |
183 |
175 |
176 |
177 |
|
Electricity consumption per
capita
1)
(kWh/capita) |
|
|
6746 |
7043 |
7430 |
7491 |
|
Electricity production/Energy
production
1)
(%) |
17(10) |
26(14) |
28 |
35 |
38 |
40 |
|
Nuclear/Total electricity
1) (%) |
1.1 (0.7) |
11.3 (12.0) |
27.3 |
29.5 |
26.3 |
26.3 |
|
Ratio of external dependency
1) 2) (%) |
48 (21) |
55 (28) |
51 |
59 |
60 |
61 |
|
Load factor of electricity
plants
1) (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- Total |
57 (64) |
50 (57) |
49 |
53 |
53 |
54 |
|
- Fossil |
59 (67) |
52 (59) |
44 |
47 |
55 |
55 |
|
- Nuclear |
34 (57) |
54 (80) |
71 |
82 |
87 |
90 |
|
- Hydro |
39 (21) |
31 (13) |
25 |
37 |
30 |
30 |
|
- Wind |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
11 |
18 |
17 |
17 |
1)
Numbers in brackets refer to
data from the then-GDR.
2) Net import / Total
energy consumption
Source: Country Information
2. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION
2.1. Historical Development and Current Nuclear Power Organizational
Structure
2.1.1.Overview
In 1955,
From 1956 to 1969 several nuclear research centres were founded in
With the assistance of US manufacturers,
After about 15 years, the gap between the German and the international
technological state of the art was closed. The German nuclear industry
received the first orders from abroad, from the
In 1969, Siemens and AEG founded
Kraftwerk Union (KWU) by merging their respective nuclear activities.
The domestic development of KWU nuclear power plants with PWRs started.
Based on several years of operational experience, a standardized 1300 MWe
PWR (the so-called "Konvoi") was introduced, mainly to speed up the
licensing process. Three "Konvoi"-units started to operate in 1988 and were
the last NPPs built in
Following the euphoria in the fifties and sixties, scepticism about
nuclear power began to grow in the early 1970s. Increasing number of
citizens opposed to the risks of atomic energy, and in particular to the
further expansion of nuclear power plants. Names such as Wyhl and Brokdorf
(planned nuclear power plants), Gorleben (waste management centre),
Wackersdorf (reprocessing unit) and Kalkar (fast breeder) are a synonym for
the protests against nuclear power. After the incident in
2.1.2. Current organizational chart(s)
The interaction of the different authorities and organizations involved
in the nuclear licensing and supervision procedure is shown in Figure 1. The
licensing procedure and the continuous regulatory supervision of the
facilities lie within the responsibility of the individual
Länder (federal states), see Table 8. To preserve legal uniformity
for the entire territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Federal
Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (Bundesministerium
für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit - BMU) supervises the
licensing and supervisory activities of the
Länder authorities regarding
lawfulness and expediency. [5].
Table 8.The Länder Licensing and
Supervisory Authorities for NPPs
|
Land |
Nuclear Installation |
Licensing Authority |
Supervisory Authority |
|
Baden-Württemberg |
Neckarwestheim 1 |
Environment Ministry
in agreement with
Economics Ministry and Interior Ministry |
Environment Ministry |
|
|
Isar 1 |
State Ministry of the
Environment, Public Health and Consumer Protection
in agreement with State Ministry of the Economy,
Infrastructure, Transport and Technology |
State Ministry of the
Environment, Public Health and Consumer Protection |
|
|
Biblis A |
Ministry of the
Environment, Rural Areas and Consumer Protection |
|
|
|
Unterweser |
Environment Ministry |
|
|
Schleswig-Holstein |
Brunsbüttel |
Ministry for Social
Affairs, Health, the Family, Youth and Senior Citizens |
|
2.2. Nuclear Power Plants: Status and Operation
2.2.1. Status of Nuclear Power Plants
In 2006, a total gross capacity of 21.4 GWe was installed in the 17 operating German nuclear power plants, comprising 11 pressurized water reactors (PWR) and 6 boiling water reactors (BWR). Table 9 shows the status of nuclear power plants by the end of 2006, Figure 2 the geographical location.
According to the Atomic Energy Act the right for further operation will
expire after production of a certain electricity volume fixed individually
for each NPP. As output allowances can be legally transferred between power
stations, it is not possible to forecast precise shut-down dates. In Table
10 the residual electricity volumes of the German NPPs on
In total, 46 research reactors were built and operated in
|
Station |
Type
|
Net |
Status |
Operator |
Reactor |
Construction |
Criticality |
Grid |
Commercial |
Shutdown |
|
|
|
Capacity |
|
|
Supplier |
Date |
Date |
Date |
Date |
Date |
|
BIBLIS-A (KWB A) |
PWR |
1167 |
Operational |
RWE |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
BIBLIS-B (KWB B) |
PWR |
1240 |
Operational |
RWE |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
BROKDORF (KBR) |
PWR |
1370 |
Operational |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
BRUNSBUETTEL (KKB) |
BWR |
771 |
Operational |
KKB |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
EMSLAND (KKE) |
PWR |
1329 |
Operational |
KLE |
SIEM, KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GRAFENRHEINFELD (KKG) |
PWR |
1275 |
Operational |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GROHNDE (KWG) |
PWR |
1360 |
Operational |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GUNDREMMINGEN-B (KRB B) |
BWR |
1284 |
Operational |
KGG |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GUNDREMMINGEN-C (KRB C) |
BWR |
1288 |
Operational |
KGG |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
ISAR-1 (KKI 1) |
BWR |
878 |
Operational |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
ISAR-2 (KKI 2) |
PWR |
1400 |
Operational |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
KRUEMMEL (KKK) |
BWR |
1320 |
Operational |
KKK |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
NECKARWESTHEIM-1 (GKN 1) |
PWR |
785 |
Operational |
EnBW |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
NECKARWESTHEIM-2 (GKN 2) |
PWR |
1269 |
Operational |
EnBW |
SIEM, KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
PHILIPPSBURG-1 (KKP 1) |
BWR |
890 |
Operational |
EnBW |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
PHILIPPSBURG-2 (KKP 2) |
PWR |
1392 |
Operational |
EnBW |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
UNTERWESER (KKU) |
PWR |
1345 |
Operational |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
AVR JUELICH (AVR) |
HTGR |
13 |
Shut Down |
AVR |
BBK |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GREIFSWALD-1(KGR 1) |
WWER |
408 |
Shut Down |
EWN |
AEE, KAB |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GREIFSWALD-2 (KGR 2) |
WWER |
408 |
Shut Down |
EWN |
AEE, KAB |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GREIFSWALD-3 (KGR 3) |
WWER |
408 |
Shut Down |
EWN |
AEE, KAB |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GREIFSWALD-4 (KGR 4) |
WWER |
408 |
Shut Down |
EWN |
AEE, KAB |
|
|
|
|
|
|
GREIFSWALD-5 (KGR 5) |
WWER |
408 |
Shut Down |
EWN |
AEE, KAB |
|
|
|
- |
|
|
GUNDREMMINGEN-A (KRB A) |
BWR |
237 |
Shut Down |
KGB |
AEG, GE |
|
|
|
|
|
|
HDR GROSSWELZHEIM |
BWR |
23 |
Shut Down |
FZK |
AEG, KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
KNK II |
FBR |
17 |
Shut Down |
FZK |
IA |
|
|
|
|
|
|
LINGEN (KWL) |
BWR |
240 |
Shut Down |
KWL |
AEG |
|
|
|
|
|
|
OBRIGHEIM (KWO) |
PWR |
340 |
Shut Down |
KWO |
SIEM, KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
MUELHEIM-KAERLICH (KMK) |
PWR |
1219 |
Shut Down |
RWE |
BBR |
|
|
|
|
|
|
MZFR |
PHWR |
52 |
Shut Down |
FZK |
SIEMENS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
NIEDERAICHBACH (KKN) |
HWGCR |
100 |
Shut Down |
FZK |
SIEM, KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
RHEINSBERG (KKR) |
PWR |
62 |
Shut Down |
EWN |
AEE, KAB |
|
|
|
|
|
|
STADE (KKS) |
PWR |
640 |
Shut Down |
E.ON |
KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
|
THTR-300 |
HTGR |
296 |
Shut Down |
HKG |
HRB |
|
|
|
|
|
|
VAK KAHL |
BWR |
15 |
Shut Down |
VAK |
GE, AEG |
|
|
|
|
|
|
WUERGASSEN (KWW) |
BWR |
640 |
Shut Down |
E.ON |
AEG, KWU |
|
|
|
|
|
Source: Country information year-end 2006 [6].
|
|
|
|
in operation |
| |
FIG. 2. Nuclear Power Plants in Germany AS OF December 2006
Source: Country Information [5]
Table 10: Residual Electricity Volumes of German NPPs
as of 31 December 2006 [TWh]
|
NPP |
Residual Electricity Volume as of 1 January 2000 (Annex 3 of the Atomic Energy Act) |
Net Electricity Volume Produced 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2006 |
Transfer of Electricity Volumes |
Residual Electricity Volumes 31 December 2006 |
|
Biblis A (KWB A) |
62.00 |
48.32 |
|
13.68 |
|
Biblis B (KWB B) |
81.46 |
57.62 |
|
23.84 |
|
Brokdorf (KBR) |
217.88 |
79.09 |
|
139.79 |
|
Brunsbüttel (KKB) |
47.67 |
34.18 |
|
13.49 |
|
Emsland (KKE) |
230.07 |
77.26 |
|
152.81 |
|
Grafenrheinfeld (KKG) |
150.03 |
70.13 |
|
79.90 |
|
Grundremmingen B (KRB B) |
160.92 |
70.68 |
|
90.25 |
|
Grundremmingen C (KRB C) |
168.35 |
69.34 |
|
99.00 |
|
Grohnde (KWG) |
200.90 |
76.24 |
|
124.66 |
|
Isar 1 (KKI 1) |
78.35 |
47.35 |
|
31.00 |
|
Isar 2 KKI 2) |
231.21 |
80.70 |
|
150.52 |
|
Krümmel (KKK) |
158.22 |
64.19 |
|
94.03 |
|
Mülheim-Kärlich (KMK) 1) |
107.25 |
|
|
107.25 |
|
Neckarwestheim 1 (GKN 1) |
57.35 |
42.39 |
|
14.96 |
|
Neckarwestheim 2 (GKN 2) |
236.04 |
73.42 |
|
162.63 |
|
Obrigheim (KWO) 2) |
8.70 |
14.20 |
5.5 |
0.00 |
|
Philippsburg 1 (KKP 1) |
87.14 |
46.02 |
- 5.5 |
35.62 |
|
Philippsburg 2 (KKP 1) |
198.61 |
73.92 |
|
124.69 |
|
Stade (KKS) 3) |
23.18 |
18.39 |
|
4.79 |
|
Unterweser KKU) |
117.98 |
65.31 |
|
52.67 |
2) The NPP Obrigheim was shut down in May 2005.
3) The NPP Stade was shut down in November 2003.
Source: Country information [6]
2.2.2. Performance of NPP's
Since 1988, nuclear energy covers about one quarter of the public
electricity supply in
Table 11: Average availability of German Nuclear Power Plants
|
Year |
Time availability [%] |
Energy availability [%] |
Energy utilisation [%] |
|
2006 |
91.1 |
90.8 |
89.1 |
|
2005 |
88.8 |
88.0 |
86.3 |
|
2004 |
89.8 |
89.2 |
87.4 |
|
2000 |
90.0 |
90.6 |
85.9 |
Time
availability:
available operating time/calendar time
Energy availability:
available energy/nominal energy
Energy utilisation:
energy generated/nominal energy
2.2.3. Plant upgrading, plant life management and license renewals
Planned modifications of a nuclear power plant are to be assessed systematically with regards to their impacts on the necessary protective and preventive measures. Modifications having obviously only insignificant impacts on the safety level do not require a licensing procedure but require accompanying inspections by the safety authorities within the framework of the supervisory procedure. Modifications that may have greater than obviously insignificant impacts on the safety level of the nuclear installation are subject to licensing (see chapter 3.2).
All operators of German nuclear power plants are obliged to perform a comprehensive quality management based on provisions for quality assurance specified in the Safety Criteria announced by the Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Protection and Reactor Safety and in the nuclear safety standards of the Nuclear Safety Standard Commission (Kerntechnische Ausschuss - KTA). The supervisory authority controls the result of the audits performed by the plant operator and the implementation of measures derived from it within the framework of on-site inspections. Ageing Management, i.e. measures for maintaining quality over a long period of time, is an integral part of the quality requirements.
According to the Atomic Energy Act safety reviews (SR) have to be carried out at prescribed dates and are to be repeated after ten years. SRs are performed according to standardized national criteria and consist of a deterministic and probabilistic part. SRs supplement the regulatory supervision and inspection of nuclear power plants. The results have to be submitted to the supervisory authority and are usually assessed by independent experts who act by order of the supervisory authority. The obligation to present the SR results is lifted if the licensee makes the binding declaration to the licensing and supervisory authority that he is definitively going to terminate power operation at the plant no later than 3 years after the final date for submission of the SR mentioned in the Atomic Energy Act.
As the licenses for the operation of NPPs are not limited in time no renewal is required, notwithstanding the legal provisions for the phase-out of nuclear electricity production.
For further information see [5].
2.2.4. Nuclear Power Plant Construction
All nuclear power plants currently in operation in
The company Babcock-Brown Boveri Reaktor GmbH (BBR, a joint venture of Brown, Boveri & Cie. and Babcock&Wilcox from the USA, meanwhile ABB, respectively sold to BNFL/UK in December 1999, now renamed Westinghouse) supplied the PWR plant, Mülheim-Kärlich, which was shut down in 1988.
German utilities together with
Siemens/KWU and in close co-operation with its French counterparts (EdF and
Framatome) had
been developing the European Pressurized Water Reactor EPR with enhanced
safety features. The EPR is currently built in
According to the Atomic Energy Act no construction license will be
granted for commercial NPPs.
2.2.5.
Decommissioning information, status and plans
See Table 12
Until December 2006, 19 nuclear power plants were permanently shut down.
From these, 15 facilities are currently being dismantled with "green-field
conditions" being the planned target, two are in safe enclosure and two have
already been completely dismantled to green-field conditions. Six other
nuclear power plants did never start operation since the projects were
abandoned during the construction phase.
Table 12: REACTORS IN DECOMMISSIONING PROCESS OR DECOMMIsSIONED As of december 2006
|
Reactor name |
Shut down date |
Shutdown reason |
Decom. strategy |
Current decom. phase |
Current fuel management phase |
Decom. licensee |
|
|
|
|
|
|
start |
end |
|
|
|
AVR Jülich (AVR) |
31.12.1988 |
experimental program ended |
dismantling |
09.03.1994 |
|
interim storage at Jülich |
AVR GmbH (part of EWN) |
|
Greifswald-1 (KGR 1) |
18.12.1990 |
safety concerns |
dismantling |
30.06.1995 |
|
interim storage Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) |
Energiewerke Nord GmbH (EWN) |
|
Greifswald-2 (KGR 2) |
14.02.1990 |
safety concerns |
dismantling |
30.06.1995 |
|
interim storage Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) |
Energiewerke Nord GmbH (EWN) |
|
Greifswald-3 (KGR 3) |
28.02.1990 |
safety concerns |
dismantling |
30.06.1995 |
|
interim storage Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) |
Energiewerke Nord GmbH (EWN) |
|
Greifswald-4 (KGR 4) |
02.06.1990 |
safety concerns |
dismantling |
30.06.1995 |
|
interim storage Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) |
Energiewerke Nord GmbH (EWN) |
|
Greifswald-5 (KGR 5) |
30.11.1989 |
economic |
dismantling |
30.06.1995 |
|
interim storage Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) |
Energiewerke Nord GmbH (EWN) |
|
Grundremmingen-A (KRB-A) |
13.01.1977 |
economic |
dismantling |
26.05.1983 |
|
reprocessing |
Kernkraftwerk Grundremmingen GmbH |
|
HDR Großwelzheim |
20.04.1971 |
technical |
dismantling |
16.02.1983 |
15.10.1998 |
reprocessed in WAK |
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH |
|
KNK II |
23.08.1991 |
experimental program ended |
dismantling |
26.08.1993 |
|
final disposal in Cadarache (F) |
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH |
|
Lingen (KWL) |
05.01.1977 |
economic |
safe enclosure |
21.11.1985 |
|
transport to Sellafield (GB) |
Kernkraftwerk Lingen GmbH |
|
Mülheim-Kärlich (KMK) |
09.09.1988 |
phase out regulation |
dismantling |
16.07.2004 |
|
reprocessed in La Hague (F) |
RWE Power AG |
|
MZFR |
03.05.1984 |
experimental program ended |
dismantling |
17.11.1987 |
|
reprocessed in WAK |
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH |
|
Niederaichbach (KKN) |
31.07.1974 |
technical |
dismantling |
21.10.1975 |
17.08.1995 |
transported to Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique |
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH |
|
Obrigheim (KWO) |
11.05.2005 |
phase out regulation |
dismantling |
|
interim storage is planned |
EnBW Kernkraft GMbH (EnKK) |
|
|
Rheinsberg (KKR) |
01.06.1990 |
safety concerns |
dismantling |
28.04.1995 |
|
interim storage Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) |
Energiewerke Nord GmbH (EWN) |
|
Stade (KKS) |
14.11.2003 |
phase out regulation |
dismantling |
07.09.2005 |
|
reprocessed in France |
E.ON Kernkraft GmbH |
1) application for decommissioning filed on 21 December 2004
2.3. Nuclear
Power Development/Launching First Nuclear Power Project
Not applicable for
2.4. Suppliers of NPPs
No exclusively German supplier of NPPs has remained with the start of the
21st century. In 2001, the remaining domestic manufacturer
Siemens/KWU merged its nuclear
business with Framatome SA, which in
the meantime became part of the French
AREVA Group as AREVA NP. The main
activities are projects and engineering, nuclear services, nuclear fuel and
mechanical equipment. Under the French management, the former KWU employees are
engaged as well in the EPR activities in
2.5. Organizations engaged in operation of NPPs
See Table 9
EnBW Kernkraft GmbH-EnKK
as part of the holding company
EnBW-Energie-Baden-Württemberg AG operates the four NPPs Neckarwestheim-1
and -2 and Philippsburg-1 and -2. The NPPs Brokdorf, Grafenrheinfeld, Grohnde,
Isar-1 and -2 and Unterweser are operated by
E.ON Kernkraft GmbH, which is a
subsidiary company of E.ON Energie AG.
The company RWE Power AG operates the
NPPs Biblis A and B. The NPPs Grundremmingen B and C are operated by
Kernkraftwerk Grundremmingen GmbH-KGG;
the shareholders of this company are RWE
Power AG (75%) and E.ON Kernkraft GmbH
(25%). The NPP Emsland is operated by Kernkraftwerke Lippe-Ems GmbH-KLE which is held by
RWE Power AG (87.5%) and
E.ON Kernkraft GmbH (12.5%).
Kernkraftwerk Brunsbüttel GmbH & Co.
oHG-KKB holded by Vattenfall Europe
Nuclear Energy GmbH (66.6%) and E.ON
Kernkraft GmbH (33.3%) operates the NPP Brunsbüttel.
Vattenfall Europe Nuclear Energy GmbH and
E.ON Kernkraft GmbH are also shareholders in equal parts of
Kernkraftwerk Krümmel GmbH & Co. oHG-KKK
which operates the NPP Krümmel.
2.6. Fuel Cycle including Waste Management
All facilities necessary to close the nuclear fuel cycle have been
realized in
O
Mining and
Milling
In
O
Uranium
Enrichment
At the enrichment plant at Gronau (URENCO
O
Fuel
Fabrication
At Lingen, the fuel fabrication facility ANF (Advanced nuclear fuels GmbH) is in operation and produces uranium fuel elements for light water reactors. In 2005, the increase of the throughput capacity up to 650 t of uranium per year was licensed.
At the Siemens Brennelementewerk
Hanau (Siemens AG) mixed oxide
(MOX) fuel elements and fuel elements for light water reactors were produced
from 1968 until 1991 and from 1969 until 1995, respectively. The facility was
decommissioned finally in 2006. The
Siemens Brennelementewerk at Karlstein (Siemens
AG) started in the year 1966 with the production of special fuel elements
using low enriched uranium dioxide. Decommissioning of this plant was finalized
in 1999. The company NUKEM produced at
the Brennelementefabrik in Hanau-Wolfgang
special fuel elements consisting of uranium and thorium for research reactors
from 1962 until 1988. The decommissioning process is ongoing. The company
Hochtemperatur-Brennelement-Gesellschaft-HOBEG
operated a fuel fabrication for the production of spherical fuel elements
composed of highly enriched uranium and thorium for high temperature reactors
from 1972 until 1988 at
O Interim Storage of Spent Fuel
Three central interim storage facilities for spent fuel are in operation:
The transport flask store Ahaus (TBLA)
for irradiated fuel, the transport flask store
Gorleben (TBLG) for both, irradiated fuel and vitrified reprocessing
products and the interim storage facility
Zwischenlager Nord (ZLN) exclusively for spent fuel from
decommissioning the NPPs Greifswald and Rheinsberg.
Twelve on-site interim storage facilities at the sites of NPPs have been
licensed and are all in operation (last one started operation in June 2007). An
additional on-site interim storage facility is under planning, with the
licensing procedure ongoing. [8}
O
Reprocessing
In
The pilot reprocessing plant at Karlsruhe (WAK) operated from 1971 until 1990. The facility has been
decommissioned and is in the process of being dismantled. It is intended to
vitrify the highly radioactive solutions of fissions products still present at
this plant at the on-site vitrification plant and, thus, prepare them for final
disposal.
The project for a reprocessing plant at Wackersdorf (WAW)
started 1982 and was abandoned in 1988. [8]
O
Waste
Management (Radioactive Waste from Complete Fuel Cycle)
It is intended to dispose all types of radioactive waste in deep
geological formations. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) is
responsible – inter alia - for the construction and operation of nuclear waste
repositories, subcontracting for this task with the
Deutsche Gesellschaft zum Bau und Betrieb von Endlagern für Abfallstoffe
mbH (DBE).
Development work in this field started in West Germany with the
Asse research mine - a salt dome in
Lower Saxony -, where low- and
medium-level radioactive waste was disposed from 1967 until 1978. After 1978
research and development on the safe disposal of radioactive waste was performed
until 1992 in Asse without any further
emplacement. Now a closure concept is in preparation. In the late 1960s,
The controlled, safe disposal of radioactive waste requires its
conditioning prior to entering the repository. At
Gorleben a pilot waste conditioning facility was erected, but only a
limited operation license to repair damaged containers was granted in 2000. [8]
2.7. Research and Development
2.7.1. R&D Organizations
See Appendix 2
As the safe operation of the nuclear power plants has top priority to the Federal Government, research in this field is continued and extended.The Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology currently provides approximately € 17 millions annually for reactor safety research. Amongst others, experimental or analytical studies of the plant behaviour of light water reactors under accident conditions, studies concerning the safety of pressure retaining components and the development of probabilistic safety analysis are funded.
The Federal Ministry for Education and Research provides since 2004 about € 31 millions per year for institutional research dealing with nuclear safety as well as repository.
The national development activities on disposal are refinanced by the
utilities
2.7.2. Development of Advanced Nuclear Power Technologies
Two prototypes of advanced reactor design were developed in
2.7.3. International
Co-operation and Initiatives
See Appendix 1
As member state of the EU, OECD/NEA, and IAEA,
As EU member
·
PHEBUS-FP
programme covering severe accidents on PWR;
·
PHARE and
TACIS programmes, general projects to support
As NEA member,
·
the
Behaviour of Iodine Project (BIP)
·
the Cabri
Water
·
the
Computer-based Systems Important to Safety (COMPSIS) Project
·
the
Co-operative Programme on Decommissioning (CPD)
·
the Fire
Incidents Records Exchange (FIRE) Project
·
the Halden
Reactor Project
·
the
Information System on Occupational Exposure (ISOE)
·
the
International Common-cause Failure Data Exchange (ICDE) Project
·
the Melt
Coolability and Concrete Interaction (MCCI) Project
·
the Piping
Failure Data Exchange (OPDE) Project
·
the PKL-2
Project
·
the Fire
propagation in elementary, multi-room scenarios (PRISME) Project
·
the
PSB-VVER Project
·
the Rig of
Safety Assessment (
·
the Steam
Explosion Resolution for Nuclear Applications (SERENA) Project
·
the SESAR
Thermal-hydraulics (SETH-2) Project
·
the Stress
Corrosion Cracking and Cable Ageing Project (SCAP)
·
the
Studsvik Cladding Integrity (SCIP) Project
·
the
Thermal-hydraulics, Hydrogen, Aerosols, Iodine (ThAI) Project
Project descriptions see
http://www.nea.fr/html/jointproj/welcome.html
2.8. Human Resource Development
The provision of sufficient and qualified personnel is defined in the Radiation Protection Ordinance and the Atomic Energy Act. Proof of the qualification of the responsible personnel as well as the necessary knowledge of the personnel otherwise engaged during operation must already be included in the license application for construction, operation or essential modification. Detailed requirements for the technical qualification of the personnel are specified in guidelines. In addition, guidelines specify the qualification of responsible shift personnel and its maintenance as well as the qualification of personnel responsible for radiation protection.
Operating personnel is in sufficient supply at the moment, which has a
long experience in the operation of nuclear power plants and which is regularly
retrained for their job at plant specific full scope simulators at the
Simulatorzentrum in
3. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS
Germany is organized as a federal republic. Unless otherwise specified, the execution of federal laws lies within the responsibility of the federal states, the 16 Länder. According to the Basic Law (Grundgesetz) the Federal Government has the exclusive legislative power regarding the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The Basic Law also states that the Atomic Energy Act is executed - with some exceptions - by the Länder on behalf of the Federal Government. In this respect, the Länder authorities are under the supervision of the Federation with regard to lawfulness and expediency of their actions.
In Germany the legislation and its execution must also take into account any binding requirement from regulations of the European Union. There are, e.g., the EURATOM Basic Safety Standards for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionizing radiation. These were issued on the basis of the EURATOM Treaty. In accordance with the EURATOM Treaty any use of ores, source material and special fissile material is subject to the Safeguards of the European Atomic Energy Community.
The IAEA Safety Standards are not implemented into national regulations, but national regulations are comparable and much more detailed.
3.1. Main National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power
See Handbook on Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
The Atomic Energy Act is the core of national regulations with respect to nuclear safety and waste management in Germany. It was promulgated on 23 December 1959. Since then, it has been amended several times. After the amendment of 2002 the purpose of the Atomic Energy Act is to end the use of nuclear energy for the commercial production of electricity in a structured manner and to ensure on-going operation up until the date of discontinuation, as well as to protect life, health and property against the hazards of nuclear energy and the detrimental effects of ionizing radiation and, furthermore, to provide for the compensation for any damage and injuries incurred. The regulations laid down in the Atomic Energy Act are not exhaustive and are further specified by ordinances, general administrative provisions and non-legally binding regulatory guidance instruments. Especially the safety standards of the Nuclear Safety Standards Commission (Kerntechnische Ausschuss - KTA), recommendations from the Reactor Safety Commission (Reaktor-Sicherheitskommission - RSK) and the Commission on Radiological Protection (Strahlenschutzkommission - SSK) but also conventional technical standards (e.g. DIN) comprise concrete rules concerning the safety of nuclear power plants.
Main National Laws and Regulations on Nuclear Power and Waste Management
See chapter 1A of the Handbook on Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
· Atomic Energy Act (Atomgesetz)