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SWEDEN

(updated on Sept. 2007)

1.  ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ELECTRICITY INFORMATION

1.1.  General Overview

Sweden is a long narrow country in the northern part of Europe and borders Norway in the west, Finland in the northeast and the Baltic Sea in the South and east, as shown in Figure 1. The total length from north to south is 1,600 kilometres and the land area is 410,932 square kilometres. The size of the area is the third in Western Europe after France and Spain. The area is almost twice as big as that of Great Britain. The northwest part of Sweden consists of mountains with a slope towards the east. There are many rivers in the north and lakes are scattered all over the country. Sweden’s coast line is more than 2,000 kilometres long.

The northern boundary is about 250 kilometres north of the north polar circle 66°30´, but because of the Gulf Stream coming from west, the climate is not of a polar type. The average temperature over the year varies between -1.5 °C in the north to 7.8 °C in the south.

The population data in Table 1 show a very slow increase of the population until the mid 90ties and then levelling of at about 8.9 million inhabitants. The population density is 19.7 persons per square kilometres; however, the northern part of Sweden is sparsely populated with smaller than 20% of the inhabitants living in the northern half of the country.

TABLE 1. POPULATION INFORMATION

Source: World Bank World Development Indicators 

There are no other domestic energy sources except hydro and bioenergy (used mainly in the pulp and paper industry and biobased district heating growing) exploited. There are, however large amounts of low grade uranium, 10,000 metric tonnes of uranium in ores containing between 500 and 2,000 grams uranium per tonne and 300,000 metric tonnes of uranium in still lower grades. There is no economic incitement to exploit such low grade uranium ores and no uranium mines are in use. Fuel for the nuclear power plants is imported.

Most of the hydro electric power is located in the north, and the electricity is transported to the south by several large 400 kV lines. All the nuclear power plants are in the southern part of Sweden as shown in Figure 2. Because of the abundance of rivers and lakes, all thermal power plants (nuclear or fossil) are cooled by sea, lakes or river water. Cooling towers at power plants can not be found in Sweden.

1.1.1.  Economic Indicators

Table 2 shows the historical Gross Domestic Product (GDP) data. The GDP annual growth trend for the year 1995 to 1999 is 2.7 %.

TABLE 2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

Source: World Bank World Development Indicators

1.1.2.  Energy Situation

Sweden's energy requirement is covered both by imported energy, primarily oil, coal, natural gas and nuclear fuel and by domestic energy in the form of hydropower, wood and peat plus waste products from the forestry industry (bark and liquors), see Table 3. Originally, all energy was domestic, primarily wood and hydropower. However during the 19th century, coal began to be imported. Coal came to play an important role up until World War II, when oil and hydropower together became the base of the energy supply. The first oil crisis in 1973 demonstrated the risk of being dependant upon oil.

TABLE 3. ESTIMATED ENERGY RESERVES

(*) Sources: 20th WEC Survey of Energy Resources, 2004 and Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and Demand ("Red Book")
(1) Coal including Lignite: proved recoverable reserves, the tonnage within the proved amount in place that can be recovered in the future under present and expected local economic conditions with existing available technology
(2) Crude oil and natural gas liquids (Oil Shale, Natural Bitumen and Extra-Heavy Oil are not included): proved recoverable reserves, the quantity within the proved amount in place that can be recovered in the future under present and expected local economic conditions with existing available technology
(3) Natural gas: proved recoverable reserves, the volume within the proved amount in place that can be recovered in the future under present and expected local economic conditions with existing available technology
(4) Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR) under < USD 130/kgU
(5) Hydropower: technically exploitable capability, the amount of the gross theoretical capability that can be exploited within the limits of current technology
Source: IAEA Energy and Economic Database.

As early on as during the 1960s, a decision was made to invest in nuclear power. Nuclear power and domestic fuels then came to be responsible for a large part of the substitution for oil, together with the more efficient utilization of energy, primarily in the heating sector. The greatest changes occurring between 1973 and 1997 were that the proportion of oil used in the energy supply fell from 71 to 29 % and that nuclear power rose from 1 to 37 %.

When studying the trend for the supply of energy, it is customary to add the various energy products without regard to their respective "Qualities". Certain energy products, primarily nuclear power and hydropower cannot be utilized by the end-user, instead having first to be converted into a more manageable energy carrier, e.g. electricity or district heating. Conversion losses in nuclear power and hydropower plants have often been ignored. Sweden is now increasingly using the internationally-prevalent calculation method of, in the case of hydropower, calculation the gross production as supplied energy and, in the case of nuclear power, the energy content of the fuel.

In Swedish hydropower stations, losses are about 1% and in the nuclear power plants about 68%, using this method of calculation. If only the net generation of electricity in the hydropower and nuclear power stations is taken into account, Sweden's supply of energy in 1999 was, 439 TW·h compared 587 TW·h according to the new international method of calculation. Table 4 shows the historical energy data.

Total energy supply varies from one year to another due to a number of factors, including variations in temperature. Years that are warmer than statistically average result in a reduced need for energy supplies, while colder years increase the need. 2000 was warmer than an average year, and so energy supply was less than would otherwise have been the case. In comparison with the international situation as a whole, Sweden obtains a relatively large proportion of its energy supplies from renewable energy sources, in the form of biofuels, hydro power and wind power. In 2000, these sources provided 30 % of the total energy supply. To increase their proportions, wind power and biofuelled CHP are subsidised by an investment grant, administered by the National Energy Administration. The Administration's forecast for the period up to 2020 expects total energy supply to be 611 or 617 TWh respectively, with net imports of electricity amounting to 9 TWh and 10 TWh respectively.

TABLE 4. ENERGY STATISTICS

1.2.  Energy Policy

The Parliament decided on energy policy guidelines in 1997 after negotiations between the political parties. According to this decision, the energy policy shall facilitate the transfer to an ecological sustainable society. The electrical supply shall be ensured by an energy system based on sustainable, preferably domestic and renewable, energy sources, and an efficient use of energy, taking into account all assets. High requirements on safety and protection of health and the environment shall be posed on use of all energy technology.

Nuclear power shall be replaced by an efficient use of energy, a converting to renewable energy sources and an environmentally acceptable power production. Use of fossil fuel should be kept on a low level. Natural gas is the best fossil fuel and the present gas network should be used. The major rivers protected by the Parliament from exploitation shall be protected also in the future.

A secure supply of electricity at a reasonable cost is an important prerequisite for the international competitiveness of the Swedish industry. The energy policy shall be implemented to support this prerequisite. An increased production and economical activity is of fundamental importance for employment and the future welfare.

The energy policy shall contribute to stable conditions for a competitive industry and to a renewal and development of the Swedish industry. The energy policy shall also contribute to a broad energy-, environmental- and climate cooperation in the Baltic region.

The latest energy political decision was taken 2002 (bill 2001/02:143). This decision means that the energy policy guidelines from 1997 are not changed, however, some new short term and medium term measures were added. A system of trade with electrical power certificates was launched in January 2003 in order to promote renewable electricity production. Also planning targets for wind power were set. In order to stimulate a more efficient use of energy, several information and education measures were launched as well as reinforcement of energy advice in the local communities and measures for procurement and market introduction of energy efficient technology.

With regard to nuclear power the present Government has decided not to phase out more reactors for political reasons or to approve construction of any new reactors during the election period ending 2010.

1.3.  The Electricity System

1.3.1.  Structure of the Electricity Sector

Electricity production started early in Sweden. The first generating plants based on hydro power were established in the 1880s. They were small and intended to supply power to industries and communities in the close vicinity. Hundreds of small hydroelectric power stations were constructed. As the technique of transferring power over longer distances developed, it became possible to exploit the larger rivers for distribution of power to the south of the country.

Many of the companies, which today are responsible for the power supply, were formed at this time. The Government became engaged in the production and distribution of power at this stage. In 1906 Parliament granted funds for the first state owned hydropower project and in 1909 the Swedish State Power Board (now Vattenfall AB) was formed. Since that time, the production of power has been divided practically equal between, on the one hand, the Government through the Swedish State Power Board (Vattenfall AB) and, on the other hand, power companies owned by industries, municipalities and other non-governmental bodies.

1999 was the fourth year of the restructured electricity market in Sweden and Finland. Norway had restructured its electricity market in 1991. During the year, competition on the market increased more than it had done during the three previous years. A good availability of electricity, together with low prices on the electricity exchange, exerted pressure on the utilities to keep their prices down.

Since the restructuring of the industry, there have been a number of changes in respect of ownership of the production utilities in the Nordic countries. Gullspång Kraft and Stockholm Energi merged in September 1998 to form Birka Energi, which means that Sweden now has six main parties dominating the electricity production sector. However, on the common Nordic market as a whole, there are several other production utilities that compete. Swedish Vattenfall, Norwegian Statkraft, Finnish Fortum and German PreussenElektra and German E.ON all want to be leading companies in a future northern European electricity market, and are therefore investing in facilities in their neighbouring countries. This action is manifesting itself in such ways as through takeovers, purchase of shareholdings, alliances and the establishment of subsidiary companies in Sweden and in other countries.

The Electrical Producers

Electricity is generated in plants owned by the state, the municipalities, industries and private companies. Additionally, a small amount of power is generated in small-scale privately owned wind power and hydropower plants. All in all, the state owns approximately 43 percent of the generating capacity, with overseas owners holding approximately 43 percent, the municipalities approximately 9 percent and others approximately 5 percent.

Mergers and acquisitions have gradually reduced the number of large producers during the last 20 years. Through this structural rationalization, the generation of electricity has become strongly concentrated. The six largest powers companies accounted for 146.2 TWh, or 92.6 percent of Sweden's overall electricity generation, during 2001. In the production statistics shown in Table 5, minority shares have been deducted and leased power has only been included at the company making use of the power. At the beginning of 2000, Stora Enso Energy AB was acquired by the Finnish energy group Fortum via its wholly owned Swedish subsidiary Fortum Energi Sverige AB.

The Nordic market is merged together in a power exchange called "Nord Pool". It is the world's first international commodity Exchange for electrical power. Nord Pool organizes trade in standardized physical (Elspot) and financial power contracts including clearing services to Nordic participants, and provides customer-support in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark. Being the Nordic Power Exchange, Nord Pool plays a keyrole as part of the infrastructure of the Nordic electricity power market and thereby provide an efficient, publicly known price on electricity, both in the spot and the derivatives market.

The Transmission of Power

The transmission of power from power plants to customers takes place using the interconnected electricity network. The network is normally divided into three levels; the high-voltage grid and the regional and local networks.

TABLE 5. THE LARGEST ELECTRICITY PRODUCERS

The utility Svenska Kraftnät is responsible for the high-voltage grid, which includes the 220 and 400 kV lines, as well as the bulk of the links with our neighbour-countries. The regional networks are owned and operated by the large power companies’ network companies, and generally include lines of 130-40 kV.

The local networks are owned and operated by about 200 network companies, and normally include lines of a maximum of 20 kV. The number of local network companies is gradually decreasing due to the continuing structural rationalisation of network operations. When network companies become larger, this often entails the local and regional networks being co-ordinated within the same network company.

The total length of the transmission line in Sweden is 475 280 km (10 times around the word), thereof 246 990 km underground and 228 280 km airborne cables. The number of customer connected to the network is 5,2 x 10⁶ and the capital value of the transmission line in Sweden is estimated to about 14 x 10⁹ US$.

1.3.2.  Decision Making Process

The electrical power market was deregulated 1996 and made competitive in principle for both the production and sale of electricity. The national high voltage grid is managed by a state company (utility): Svenska Kraftnät. Regional and local grids are operated by various grid companies as regulated monopolies. A Nordic marketplace "Nord Pool" has been created for the electricity trade. Spot market prises have fluctuated considerably during the operational period of Nord Pool. The first years after deregulation prices fell to very low levels but the last years average prices have been higher, depending to a large extent on the availability of hydropower.

Generation and trade of electricity are free for anyone wishing to do so. Sweden's electricity producers compete for customers with one another, with overseas electricity producers and with electricity traders and brokers.

Svenska Kraftnät, as system operator, is ultimately responsible for ensuring that a balance is maintained between the production and consumption of electricity in Sweden. This responsibility also includes ensuring that the necessary disruption reserve is always available. On the deregulated electricity market, it is only the system operators that have a satisfactory overview of the overall electricity balance. The Swedish Power Association has thus lobbied the government as regards the need to elucidate Svenska Kraftnät's responsibility.

Svenska Kraftnät is tasked to, among other things, monitoring the available capacity during peak loads and developing market instruments that can contribute to safeguarding the availability of power during peak loads. Svenska Kraftnät has acquired gas turbines with a combined output power of 400 MW from Vattenfall. In order to cover the remaining requirement for rapid disruption reserves, Svenska Kraftnät also has agreements with several power producers regarding a further 800 MW of gas turbine capacity.

One further possibility lies in agreements with industry regarding the disconnection of consumption during times of peak loading.

1.3.3.  Main Indicators

Today, most of Sweden's electricity is produced by hydropower or nuclear power, with conventional thermal power production accounting for only about 5 %. Oil-fired cold condensing power plants and gas turbines are used today primarily as reserve capacity during years with low precipitation and resulting low hydropower production. Restructuring of the electricity market has resulted in several reserve power stations being taken out of use for economic reasons. There are also about 500 wind power plants in the country (as of August 2000). As yet, however, their contribution to the country's electricity balance is still very small, amounting to 0.2 % during 1999.

The total installed capacity of the Swedish electricity production system on 31 December 2001 is 31721 MW and 2005 33212 MW. However, 100 % capacity is never available, and transmission capacity between the north and south of the country is limited. The normal transmission capacity means that 6 300-7 000 MW can be transferred from north to central Sweden, and 3 350 MW from central Sweden to southern Sweden. In 2005, the country produced 155 TW·h, of electricity, of which 46 % was produced by hydropower and 45 by nuclear power. Table 6 shows the historical electricity production data and the installed capacities and Table 7 the energy related ratios.

Electricity is produced in Sweden from hydropower, nuclear power, wind power and conventional thermal power plants. In this context, thermal power refers to combined heat and power production, cold condensing power production and gas turbines, but not nuclear power. Combined heat and power plants are employed in industry, where the heat is used for internal process requirements, and in district heating plants, where the heat is generally supplied to public district heating systems.

At the beginning of the 1970s, most of Sweden's electricity was being produced by hydro-power and conventional thermal power. This was when expansion of nuclear power started, with Sweden's first commercial reactor, Oskarshamn 1, being commissioned in 1972. Since then, the proportion of electricity from nuclear power has grown substantially, so that from 1975 more electricity has been produced in nuclear power plants than in conventional thermal power plants.

TABLE 6. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION AND INSTALLED CAPACITY

TABLE 7. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

2.  NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1.  Historical Development and current nuclear power organizational structure

2.1.1.  Overview

In Sweden, nuclear technology started in 1947, when AB Atomenergi was constituted to carry out a development programme decided by the Parliament. As a result, the first research reactor went critical in 1954. This was followed by the first prototype nuclear power plant (PHWR) Ågesta located to a rock cavern in a suburb of Stockholm. The Ågesta reactor was mainly used for district heating and operated from 1964 until 1974, when it was permanently shut down. The first commercial nuclear power plant Oskarshamn 1 was commissioned in 1972 and was followed by another eleven units sited at Barsebäck, Oskarshamn Ringhals and Forsmark in the time period up to 1985. The twelve commercial reactors constructed in Sweden comprise 9 BWRs (ASEA-ATOM design) and 3 PWRs (Westinghouse design). As a result of political decisions, the twin BWR units Barsebäck 1 and 2 were finally shut down in 1999 and 2005 respectively.

In 2004, Studsvik Nuclear decided to permanently shut down the two research reactors (R2 and R2-0) at the Studsvik site. They were closed in June 2005. The decision was taken on economical grounds, the licences had recently been extended until 2014, subject to certain conditions. The reactors were mainly used for commercial materials testing purposes, isotope production, neutron source for research purposes, medical applications and higher education. They are currently under decommissioning.

2.1.2.  Current Organizational Chart(s)

The restructuring of the European nuclear power industry, caused by the deregulation and widening of the electrical power markets, has brought about an internationalisation of the, for many years, two dominant Swedish utilities: Vattenfall AB and Sydkraft AB. Vattenfall AB has acquired large power production assets in Poland and Germany, including co-ownership of four German nuclear power plants, and has established itself as a major actor on the European level. The major German utility, E.ON, has acquired a majority of the shares in Sydkraft AB. As a result Sydkraft AB has changed name to E.ON Sverige AB. The Norwegian utility Statkraft has acquired the remaining part of Sydkraft. The Finnish utility Fortum, owner of the Loviisa nuclear power plant, has established itself as a big owner on the Swedish market, with a large share of OKG. The result is a large extent of cross ownership of the Swedish nuclear power plants as shown in figure 3 below.

The structure of the nuclear-electric sector in Sweden is shown in Figure 3.

2.2.  Nuclear Power Plants: Status and Operations

2.2.1.  Status of Nuclear Power Plants

At present, in May 2007, there are 10 nuclear power reactors in operation in Sweden as specified in Table 8. Three power reactors have been permanently shut down, namely Ågesta, Barsebäck 1 and Barsebäck 2.

TABLE 8. STATUS NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

All the BWRs were designed by the domestic vendor ASEA-ATOM (later ABB Atom, now Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB) and all the PWRs, except ågesta, by Westinghouse USA.

Eight of the power reactors (including Barsebäck 1 and 2) were uprated during the period 1982-1989 between 6-10 % from the original licensed power levels. In resent years new uprating plans has been launched for several NPP's, se sec. 2.2.3.

2.2.2.  Performance of nuclear power plants

During the years 2004 and 2005 there were no events indicating a serious degradation of safety and radiation protection at Swedish nuclear power plants. In total four events were classified as level 1 on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) during 2004 and 2005. During 2006 five events were classified as level 1 and one event as level 2.

2.2.3.  Upgrading and plant life management

Nine of the power reactors (including Barsebäck 1 and 2) were uprated during the period 1982-1989 between 6-10 % from the original licensed thermal power levels. This was possible due to better use of existing margins, better methods of analysis and improved fuel design. Major plant modifications were not necessary. Current plans for uprating include major uprates of seven reactors and a minor uprating of one reactor. In addition to the six applications already submitted to SKI, two applications are expected during 2007. The current power levels and the uprating plans are shown in the table below. The whole programme, including measures on the conventional side, will add 1275 MWe to the current nuclear power production capacity as shown in table 3.

The operating licence, issued by the Government, stipulates the highest allowed thermal power level. The licence only applies up to this power level. To further increase the power level, the licensee has to apply to the Government for a new licence in accordance with the Act (1984:3) on Nuclear Activities.

A power increase can affect the facility in a number of different ways and to a varying degree depending on the size of the increase. The conditions and parameters which can affect safety must therefore be identified and analysed in order to establish whether the safety requirements are met with the necessary safety margins.

A number of components and systems in the nuclear power plant must be verified as having a capacity corresponding to the higher power. The impact on safety mainly occurs from the fact that the core will contain more reactivity. The inventory of radioactive substances in the fuel will increase. The neutron radiation of components around the reactor core will increase. The residual heat of the reactor is proportional to the operating power and will therefore increase. The systems that supply coolant to the reactor and remove the residual heat must have an increased capacity. Since the total energy generation from the reactor will increase, the consumption of fissile material (U-235) will increase. At most, this increase will be in proportion to the power increase.

TABLE 9. POWER LEVELS OF THE SWEDISH OPERATING REACTORS.

F= Forsmark, O= Oskarshamn, R= Ringhals

2.2.4.  Nuclear power development, projections and plans

The Government decided 2006 to allow power uprates of Ringhals 1, Ringhals 3 and Oskarshamn 3. Except of this, no firm decisions have been taken about the future of the nuclear power programme in Sweden. The earlier time limit 2010 for decommissioning of the remaining units was revoked already in 1997 as a result of an energy policy agreement between the political parties. The present Government declared in their election programme 2006 that no more units will be considered for shut down and no decisions will be taken on new nuclear power during the election period ending 2010.

Despite certain political uncertainties, the Swedish nuclear power programme has entered a dynamic stage. Although the two Barsebäck reactors have been closed, the 10 remaining operating reactors are undergoing extensive modernisation and safety upgrading to be fit for operations for 40 years and beyond. Also the physical protection is being extensively upgraded. The Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate controls the upgrading through recently issued regulations. The regulations on design and construction of nuclear power reactors take into account operating experience, safety analyses, development of safety standards and research results. In connection with the modernisation work, the licensees have applied for uprating of eight reactors. This programme, including measures on the conventional side, will add 1275 MWe to the current nuclear power production capacity.

2.2.5.  Decommissioning: information and plans

So far Sweden has only limited experience from decommissioning of nuclear facilities. It is limited to the decommissioning of the R1 research reactor in Stockholm as well as some smaller test facilities and laboratories in Studsvik.

The most significant nuclear facilities under decommissioning are listed below.

The nuclear power plant Barsebäck ( 2x615 MWe, BWR). Barsebäck 1, which was closed in November 1999, was the first commercial nuclear power unit to be permanently taken out of operation in Sweden. The second unit, Barsebäck 2, was finally shut down on May 31, 2005. The spent fuel has been stored in the CLAB facility in Oskarshamn, and the whole plant is now in a phase of care and maintenance. According to present planning dismantling and demolition operations will start about 2020 and be finished about 2030.

The Ågesta district heating nuclear power reactor (80 MWth, PHWR) was operated between 1964 and 1974 supplying parts of the Stockholm suburb Farsta with heated water. After shut down the spent fuel was transferred to CLAB for interim storage and the plant has since been in a phase of care and maintenance. No decision has yet been taken on the time for dismantling.

The research reactors R2 och R2-0 (MTRs, 50 and 2 MWth) in Studsvik were finally shut down 15 June 2005. Dismantling will start in 2008 and be finished in 2015.

2.3.  Supply of NPPs

ABB Atom (former ASEA Atom and currently Westinghouse Electric Sweden) has designed and delivered nine BWRs in Sweden and two in Finland. All the reactors were designed without any license from the US. ABB Atom used to have an indoor capability including architect engineering, but during the 1980s, the utilities in Scandinavia took the main responsibility for co-ordination of the nuclear power projects. VBB-VIAK (former VBB) has been responsible for the building design and building construction co-ordination on behalf of some of the utilities or ABB Atom.

The reactor fuel, the control rods and the control rod drives have been manufactured by ABB Atom. The control rooms and most of the electric components have been manufactured by sister organizations to ABB Atom within ABB (earlier ASEA). The turbines and all types of heat exchangers have been manufactured by ABB (former ASEA Stal in Sweden and Brown Boveri Company in Switzerland). Sandvik AB is a Swedish manufacturer of fuel canning tubes and steam generator tubes.

Two Swedish building and civil engineering companies have been involved in the construction of the nuclear power plants in Sweden and Finland: NCC and SKANSKA. In 2000, ABB Atom became part of Westinghouse Electric Company.

2.4.  Operation of NPPs

The operators and some of the owners of Swedish nuclear power plants are shown in Figure 3. Some additional information about the power utilities is given in Table 9. It should be mentioned that all the operators are relatively independent of their mother organizations when it comes to technical capability.

Maintenance services are supplied by Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB (previously ABB Atom) Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB - Tekniska Röntgencentralen, Alstom Power (previously ABB Stal) and several other Swedish companies. Major maintenance service companies in Germany, France and UK are often engaged at the Swedish nuclear power plants.

Kärnkraftsäkerhet och Utbildning AB, KSU (Nuclear Training and Safety Centre) has full scale nuclear power plant simulators in operation and has been responsible for training of the nuclear power operators. KSU also provides nuclear power plant technicians with complementary education on a university level in nuclear power related topics. KSU participates in the work on nuclear safety performed within the Swedish utilities and co-ordinate these efforts. KSU also provides information regarding operating experience in the Swedish plants internationally. KSU was reorganised during 2001 and some of the full scale simulators will in be moved and rebuilt at their respective NPP site.

2.5.  Fuel Cycle and Waste Management

Swedish utilities import all their need of uranium and enrichment services. Westinghouse (previously ABB Atom) manufactures reactor fuel both for BWRs and PWRs. Half of the deliveries are to utilities abroad. The Swedish utilities buy part of their fuel elements from abroad. The spent fuel from all the Swedish nuclear power plants is transported by boat to the central interim storage CLAB. The facility started operation in 1985 and is situated close to the Oskarshamn nuclear power plant. It has been substantially expanded during the last years.

Some low level waste is finally deposed of at local dumps and some of it is incinerated at Studsvik. All other waste from reactor operation is transported to SFR, the final repository for radioactive operational waste, in operation since 1988. SFR is located close to the Forsmark nuclear power plant. Most of the waste from decommissioning of the reactors will be disposed at SFR.

Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB, SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste management Company) has built and owns the CLAB, SFR and the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory. SKB is acting on behalf of the nuclear utilities in conducting the extensive research and development and demonstration work with regard to the remaining facilities for final disposal of long-lived spent nuclear fuel. SKB is also responsible for co-ordination and investigations regarding the costs for nuclear waste and future decommissioning. SFR and CLAB are operated by Forsmark Kraftgrupp and OKG respectively on behalf on SKB. SKB is jointly owned by the Swedish utilities (Vattenfall 36%, Forsmark Kraftgrupp 30%, OKG 22% and E.ON Sweden 12%).

2.6.  Research and Development

2.6.1.  R&D organizations and institutes

AB Atomenergi started in the late 1950s the national nuclear power laboratory at Studsvik. Later it was transformed to a general energy laboratory but now most of the activities at the site are managed by Studsvik AB, still involved in the nuclear area but all research reactors are shut down permanently. Studsvik AB is today a commercial organization not owned by the state any more.

Most of the reactor safety research and development is directed by the nuclear power operators and by SKI and SSI. It is performed at universities - also abroad - Westinghouse Electric Sweden, Studsvik, at the Vattenfall central laboratory and at other research institutes.

SKB has been directing a large research programme for developing safe waste disposal methods. The research has been conducted in collaboration with universities, institutes of technology, research institutions in Sweden and abroad.

2.6.2.  Development of advanced and new generation nuclear reactor systems

No planning or research is performed regarding new nuclear power plants in Sweden.

2.7.  International Co-operation

Most of the Swedish contacts with IAEA and OECD/NEA are through official channels managed in the nuclear field by SKI (Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate) and SSI (Swedish Radiation Protection Authority).

KSU analyses and evaluates operating experience gained at other nuclear power worldwide which can benefit the operation of the Swedish plants. KSU have also been the main communication channel between the Swedish utilities and the nuclear safety organizations WANO and INPO.

SKB has a broad network of international contacts. Formal co-operation agreements exist with the following organizations:

The following organizations have signed agreements of participation in the Aspö Hard Rock Laboratory project: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL); Power Reactor & Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) of Japan; Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) of Japan; ANDRA of France; TVO of Finland;, NIREX of UK; USDOE and Nagra of Switzerland.

2.8.  Human resources development

The academic education in nuclear technology in Sweden is mainly concentrated to the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm (KTH), Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg (CTH) and Uppsala University (UU). At KTH the Swedish Centre of Nuclear Technology has existed since 1992. From having been mainly oriented towards KTH and support to doctoral students, the Centre has now as its aim also to support professor- and lecturer posts and post-graduate education in the nuclear field at the three universities mentioned above. Ten professorships (of which two are vacant currently) with a specific nuclear technology or human factors profile and ten lectureships exist in Sweden for higher nuclear education and research. Somewhat over 200 students per year have attended the nuclear courses at the mentioned universities over the last years.

Sweden has taken a systematic approach to maintain basic academic resources for higher nuclear education and research. This is done by an agreement between the Swedish nuclear industry and SKI to support the Swedish Centre of Nuclear Technology economically during several years. A new assessment of the needs was made in 2006 and the present financiers have decided to continue the support after 2007, when the present agreement ends.

3.  NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1.  Safety Authority and the Licensing Process

There are two nuclear regulatory bodies in Sweden; the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate (SKI) and the Radiation Protection Authority (SSI). The missions and tasks of the two authorities are defined in Ordinances with instructions for the respective authority, and the annual government letter of appropriation which contains more detailed objectives and reporting obligations. In addition to SKI and SSI there are also a few other administrative authorities with responsibility to supervise specific activities of the NPPs, such as the Rescue Services Agency, the Swedish Work Environment Authority and the Electrical Inspectorate.

The SKI missions and tasks are defined in the Ordinance (2006:520) with instruction for the Nuclear Power Inspectorate and in the annual letters of appropriation where the Government issues directives for the authorities including the use of appropriations. The Ordinance states that SKI is the central administrative authority for nuclear safety including physical protection, final disposal of nuclear material and nuclear waste, nuclear non-proliferation and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. SKI shall deal with any civil service matter within its area of responsibility, issue regulations, regulate the nuclear activities and supervise and exercise control over final repositories. SKI shall also handle certain financial issues with regard to nuclear waste and provide technical advice to authorities responsible for protection of the public in cases of a nuclear accident within or outside the country. In addition, the following more detailed tasks are mentioned:

1. follow the development within the nuclear energy area,
2. take the initiative to research that is needed for the nuclear supervision and for promoting national competence,
3. actively contribute to information of the public about national nuclear safety and waste safety work,
4. handle tasks following from Sweden's international obligations within SKI's areas of responsibility,
5. take part in international cooperation aiming at development of nuclear safety, transport safety, spent fuel and nuclear waste safety and decommissioning,
6. assist the Government with investigations, statements and expert knowledge when needed.

The SKI missions are conducted within four main sectors: reactor- and nuclear materials safety, nuclear non-proliferation, nuclear waste safety and, since 2007, nuclear waste economy. In addition SKI is involved in international development co-operation within the areas of reactor safety, nuclear waste safety and non-proliferation. The development cooperation is administered through a separate unit, the International Cooperation Programme, reporting directly to the Director General.

Within reactor and nuclear materials safety, SKI has the following tasks as specified in the 2007 letter of appropriation:

1. Maintain effective safety requirements
2. Supervise licensee's responsibility for safety
3. Push safety work forward nationally and internationally when motivated by experience, research and technical development
4. Develop and maintain national competence with regard to nuclear safety
5. Maintain preparedness for advising other authorities in cases of nuclear emergencies
6. Maintain an active information, reporting and transparency towards the public

Achievements in all these tasks have to be assessed and reported back to the Government annually.

For consultations before more complicated decisions are taken, SKI has three permanent advisory committees: one for reactor safety matters, one for nuclear fuel cycle matters and one for research and development matters. Each committee consist of a chair and six other members. The chairs are appointed by the Government and other members by the SKI Board for a limited time period.

SSI's mission is to promote effective radiation protection for people and the environment. For this purpose, SSI issues regulations and provides information, education, issuing advice and recommendations, and funding and evaluating research.

In the letter of appropriation for SSI three activity goals are listed under the main objective: Nuclear Energy Supervision and Emergency Preparedness:

1. National emergency preparedness. It is pointed out that the Swedish national emergency preparedness of high class shall be maintained, developed and co-ordinated with Sweden's international responsibilities. SSI shall also co-ordinate the national competence regarding measurement techniques relevant for emergency preparedness issues.
2. Safe handling of radioactive waste, as well as limitation of emission of radioactive nuclides. All spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste must be managed and transported, from a radiation protection point-of-view, in safe way. The amount of radioactive waste and the emissions of radioactive substances shall be limited as far as reasonably achievable. Assessment, dialogue and information in connection with the on-going siting- and licensing process for a future repository for long-lived and high-level activity radioactive waste should be carried out in such a way that a good basis for decisions is achieved.
3. Protection of workers and public. A safe radiation environment for workers and the public must be upheld. Acute radiation effects should not occur and doses to workers and the public should be kept as low as reasonably achievable. SSI shall report how the work of the authority has contributed to good administrative control of radiation sources and has counteracted the risk for orphan sources.

Both SKI and SSI are grouped under the Ministry of Environment. The Government has recently announced (April 2007) that they intend to merge SKI and SSI by 1 April 2008. A new authority will be created at that date with the same tasks as the two earlier authorities.

Licences for Operation of Nuclear Installations

With a few exceptions, licences for nuclear installations are decided upon and issued by the Government upon a written recommendation prepared by SKI. An application for a permit to construct, possess or operate a nuclear installation shall - along with the particular documents concerning construction and nuclear safety - contain an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Procedures regarding the EIA are laid down in the Environmental Code. These provisions are also applicable in the licensing procedures according to the Act on Nuclear Activities. The EIA aims to facilitate an overall assessment of the planned operation's effects on the environment, health and management of natural resources, thus providing a better basis for the decision.

SKI is given the mandate to decide upon licence conditions for nuclear safety. Previously this mandate was given by the Government in every particular licence, but according to a legal amendment on 1 July 2006, SKI now has a continuous and general mandate to decide such conditions for all sorts of licences issued under the Act on Nuclear Activities.

If an licensee fails to comply with conditions attached to the licence or with safety obligations arising in any other manner under the Act on Nuclear Activities, the Government or the Inspectorate has the authority to revoke the licence altogether. The decision lies with the authority that has issued the particular licence.

3.2.  Main National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power

The following five Acts constitute the basic nuclear legislation of Sweden:

• The Act (1984:3) on Nuclear Activities,
• The Radiation Protection Act (1988:220),
• The Environmental Code (1998:808),
• The Act (1992:1537) on the Financing of Future Charges for Spent Nuclear Fuel,
• The Nuclear Liability Act (1968:45).

With exception for the Nuclear Liability Act, all Acts are supplemented by a number of ordinances and other secondary legislation which contain more detailed provisions for particular aspects of the regime.

Operation of a nuclear facility can only be conducted in accordance with a licence issued under the Act on Nuclear Activities and a licence issued under the Environmental Code. Thus, operation of a nuclear facility requires two separate licences.

The Act on Nuclear Activities is mainly concerned with issues of safety and security, while the Environmental Code is focusing on the general environmental aspects and impacts of "environmentally hazardous activities as to which Nuclear Activities are defined.

The Act on Radiation Protection aims to protect people, animals and the environment from the harmful effects of radiation. The Act is of particular importance as regards protection of employees involved in radiological operations.

The Act on the Financing of Future Charges for Spent Nuclear Fuel contain provisions concerning the future costs of spent fuel disposal, decommissioning of reactors and research in the field of nuclear waste. Means for that purpose have to be available when needed.

The Nuclear Liability Act implements Sweden's obligations as a Party to the 1960 Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and the 1963 Brussels Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention.

Other relevant Acts are the Act on Control of Export of Dual-use Products and Technical Assistance (2000:1064) and the Act (2000:140) on Inspections according to International Agreements on Non-proliferation of Nuclear weapons. Emergency preparedness matters are regulated by a separate Act (2003:778) and Ordinance (2003:789) on protection against accidents with serious potential consequences for human health and the environment.

In December 1997, the Parliament adopted the Act (1997:1320) on the Phasing-Out of Nuclear Power, which entered into force on 1 January 1998. This Act formed part of the 1995 inter-party agreement on guidelines for energy policy in order to create conditions for the efficient use of energy and for a cost-effective supply of energy, thereby facilitating the creation of an "ecologically sustainable society". Based upon provisions in this Act, the Government decided upon the shut-down of the two boiling water reactors in Barsebäck in 1999 and 2005 respectively.

For regulations issued by the regulatory authorities, se reference [6] and homepages of each authorities

Financing decommissioning and waste disposal

The costs of managing and disposing of the spent nuclear fuel shall be paid by owners of the nuclear power plants. The costs are financed by today's electricity production and must not burden future generations. This also applies to the costs of decommissioning and disposing of the decommissioning waste. To ensure that adequate funds will be available in the future, a special charge is levied on nuclear power production. It is paid to SKI and is deposited in interest-bearing accounts in the Bank of Sweden. The charge is fixed annually by the Government and is based on a cost calculation submitted by SKB to SKI. All costs for the necessary systems and facilities are included, i.e., transportation system, CLAB, SFR, encapsulation plant and deep repository for spent fuel and other long-lived waste. The calculations also includes costs for research, development, demonstration and information about the waste issue.

4.  CURRENT ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENTS ON NUCLEAR POWER

4.1.  Energy Policy

Nuclear power has been a very prominent issue in the political debate in Sweden since the 1970's. In 1997, the Act (1997:1320) on the Phasing-Out of Nuclear Power was adopted by Parliament. This Act authorises the Government to shut down a nuclear power reactor as a consequence of conversion of the energy system. The location, age, design and importance for the energy system of a particular reactor shall be considered when taking such a decision. The Act also includes provisions for reimbursement of the reactor owner, in the case a shut down decision is taken according to the Act.

Pursuant to the new Act, Barsebäck 1 was shut down on 30 November 1999 and Barsebäck 2 on 31 May 2005. The reactor owner Sydkraft AB was fully compensated by shares in the state owned utility Vattenfall.

The Government decided 2006 to allow power uprates of Ringhals 1, Ringhals 3 and Oskarshamn 3. Except of this, no firm decisions have been taken about the future of the nuclear power programme in Sweden. The earlier time limit 2010 for decommissioning of the remaining units was revoked already in 1997 as a result of an energy policy agreement between the political parties. The present Government declared in their election programme 2006 that no more units will be considered for shut down and no decisions will be taken on new nuclear power during the election period ending 2010.

TABLE 9. NPP OWNERSHIP

4.2.  Privatisation and deregulation

The electricity market is at present under going extensive changes in many parts of the world in terms of altered market conditions, new technology and greater environmental awareness. One of the effects of the EU Electricity Market Directive is that at least 25% of electricity markets in the EU states must be open for competition. The degree of openness varies between states. The electricity markets in Sweden, Finland, Norway, the UK and Germany are fully open to competition, which means that all companies and households are free to choose their electricity suppliers. France, Greece, Portugal and Austria, on the other hand, have merely fulfilled the minimum requirements of the directive. The directive also affects other countries in Europe, and particularly those that have applied for EU membership. Decisions on, or advanced plans for, reform of their electricity markets also exist in several countries outside the EU.

A similar development can be seen in other countries, such as South America, south-east Asia and Oceania. The USA has also started a restructuring process, under which California was the first state to reform its electricity market in 1998.

Restructuring of the electricity markets involves a change from national monopolies, with central planning, to markets exposed to competition. Electricity becomes a form of energy raw material, which can be traded and supplied across borders. Company takeovers in the electricity markets in the Nordic countries have attracted considerable attention in recent years.

Strategic investments are being made by the largest Nordic power utilities, not only in the Nordic countries but in the rest of Europe, while non-Nordic companies, such as the German PreussenElektra and the French EdF, are investing in the Nordic countries.

Import and export of electricity have previously been clear concepts that have been defined on a national perspective. However, as the larger companies increasingly extend their activities across national borders, it becomes less relevant to talk of national electricity markets. Large companies are buying and selling electricity in many other countries besides their original homelands. Development will be towards a common market, with electricity being produced wherever it is physically and economically most appropriate.

4.3.  Role of the government in the nuclear R&D

There is no R&D program financed by the government. The two regulatory bodies SKI and SSI have research programmes based on fees from the utilities. In the area of waste disposal and final storage of spent fuel, the utilities are forced by law conduct necessary research. The research budget for SKI is 12 M$ and for SSI 3 M$.

SKI's research is based on the research strategy from 2002, where it is stated that the overall goals of SKI's nuclear safety research are that they should contribute to:

• keeping SKI up to date with the knowledge, facts, analytical methods and supervisory tools that are needed to pursue effective regulatory and supervisory activities, promote the safety and non-proliferation work, and be able to carry out SKI's advisory tasks in accident situations or threats thereof,
• giving SKI continuous access to the competence and the resources that are needed to assess the safety situation and the non-proliferation work with a sufficient degree of independence and integrity,
• ensuring that national competence and research capacity of importance for nuclear safety and non-proliferation work are available.

To achieve these goals, SKI applies a strategy with both short-range and long-range research. The research activities shall be based on a well-balanced programme of long-range research whose point of departure is the supervisory challenges and whose aims are:

• to gradually build up knowledge in matters that are of importance for the safety or non-proliferation work, and for which there is a more long-term need,
• to gradually build up or maintain competence and research resources within subject areas that are of importance for the safety or non-proliferation work, and which SKI needs access to,
• to systematically clarify whether fears aroused in the supervisory work are or may become a safety problem.

Research is a prerequisite for SKI to be able to conduct its regulatory activities. Research to support supervision is focused on a number of strategic areas such as safety assessment, safety analysis, reactor technology, material and fuel questions, human factors, emergency preparedness and non-proliferation.

SSI's research budget consists of two parts of approximately equal size. SSI uses one part directly to support its supervising activities. Approximately 75% of this budget is used for research related to nuclear energy production, such as radioecology, radiation protection of power plant workers, emergency preparedness, nuclear waste matters, and questions related to risk perception and acceptance of waste disposal. The remaining 25% of the budget is used for non-nuclear research, i.e. mainly medical and technical applications and uses of radiation, and for non-ionising radiation (UV, electromagnetic fields).

The purpose of the other part of the research budget, which is new from 2007, is to finance basic and applied research in the whole field of radiation protection. The new research funds will be used to finance advanced research positions in radiation biology, radiation dosimetry, and radioecology at universities. The primary focus is to maintain competence in radiation protection. Part of the new funds will also be used to give research grants after application.

4.4.  Nuclear energy and climate change

Nuclear energy is currently not credited in Sweden as a sustainable energy source and the official policy is still to phase out nuclear power (see section 1.2).

4.5.  Safety and waste management issues

As mentioned, the 10 remaining operating power reactors are undergoing extensive modernisation and safety upgrading to be fit for operations for 40 years and beyond. Also the physical protection is being extensively upgraded. In connection with the modernisation work, the licensees have applied for uprating of eight reactors. This programme, including measures on the conventional side, will add 1275 MWe to the current nuclear power production capacity.

The Swedish nuclear power programme, including the Studsvik facilities and the Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB fuel fabrication plant in Västerås, will generate approximately 19 000 m3 spent fuel, 60 000 m³ low and intermediate level waste (LILW), and 160 000 m³ decommissioning waste (based on 40-year operation of each reactor). The typical total annual production of LILW at the nuclear facilities is 1 000 - 1 500 m³.

Existing waste management practices are the repository for radioactive operational waste, SFR-1, shallow land burials, CLAB, the transportation system and clearance.

SFR-1 is a repository for LILW resulting from the operation of Swedish nuclear reactors. In addition small amounts of radioactive waste from hospitals, research institutions and industry are disposed of in SFR-1. SFR-1 consists of four rock caverns and a silo. The facility is situated at 50 m depth, in the bedrock 5 m under the Baltic Sea level. Construction started in 1983 and it was taken into operation in 1988. The total capacity is 63 000 m³. By the end of 2006 a total volume of 31 250 m³ had been used. The nuclear power plants at Ringhals, Forsmark and Oskarshamn as well as the Studsvik site have shallow land burials for short-lived very low-level waste (< 300 kBq/kg). Each of these burials is licensed for a total activity of 100 - 200 GBq (the highest allowed level according to the legislation is 10 TBq, of which a maximum of 10 GBq may consist of alpha-active substances).

The spent nuclear fuel from all Swedish nuclear power reactors is stored in a central interim storage (CLAB) situated at the Oskarshamn nuclear power plant. The fuel is stored in water pools in rock caverns at 25 m depth in the bedrock. Construction started in 1980 and it was taken into operation in 1985. The current total storage capacity is 5 000 tonnes of spent fuel. 4 775 tonnes were being stored at the end of 2006. CLAB is currently being expanded with a second rock cavern and water pool. The capacity after the expansion will be sufficient for storing all spent fuel from the nuclear power reactors, approximately 8 000 tonnes. The commissioning of the extended part of the storage facility is delayed but is planned within the near future.

Four major facilities remain to be designed, sited, constructed and licensed. Namely a plant for the encapsulation of spent nuclear fuel, a final repository for spent fuel, a repository for long-lived low and intermediate level waste, and a repository for waste from decommissioning and dismantling the nuclear power plants. An application for the encapsulation plant was received by SKI 2006.

The development work for the final repository of spent fuel has continued according to plan and the process for selecting suitable sites is underway. Östhammar, close to Forsmark, and Oskarshamn are presently being investigated as possible locations for the final repository. These investigations are planned to be completed in 2008.

4.6.  Other issues

REFERENCES

Appendix 1

INTERNATIONAL (MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL) AGREEMENTS

MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS

• Exchange of ministerial notes between Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway about guiding principles for contacts about nuclear safety concerning nuclear plants at the borders between Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. (SÖ 1977:48)

BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

Appendix 2

DIRECTORY OF THE MAIN ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES