The governmental system is organised in different ministries. The energy sector is managed within the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy (MEDDE), in particular in the General Division for Energy and Climate (DGEC)

It defines and implements the energy and supply of mineral raw materials policies of France. In these sectors, tasks can be grouped into six areas:

• the opening of energy markets, including electricity and gas,

• the monitoring in key sectors of energy and raw materials,

• the supervision of public enterprises and institutions,

• controls and state missions,

• work at international and European level,

• economic expertise.

France is situated in Western Europe and is nearly hexagonal in shape, with an extreme length from north to south of 965 km and a maximum width of 935 km. The total area of metropolitan France, including the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean, is 552,000 km². In addition to the European or metropolitan territory, the country includes several overseas “départements”, territorial “collectivités”, and overseas territories. The climate of metropolitan France is temperate, with wide regional contrasts. The average annual temperature is about 12°C. Precipitation is evenly distributed, averaging about 760 mm annually.

The total population is about 66.1 million at the beginning of 2013 and the population density around 121 inhabitants per km² (Table 1). Population growth rate has been around 0.7% per annum in the last thirteen years.

TABLE 1. POPULATION INFORMATION

Source: INSEE, AIE

Average GDP growth in France was 1.5% between 2005 and 2010 (in constant prices). This value was only 0.8% between 2010 and 2011 because of the economic crisis.

Table 2 shows the historical trend of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in current prices.

TABLE 2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

* PPP: Purchasing Power Parity

Source: Perspective Monde

TABLE 3. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m3; Uranium: Metric tons; Hydro, Renewable: TW

Source: Enerdata

France has deposits of various metals and little fossil fuel resources. Owing to high recovery costs, production of fossil fuels has decreased to a rather low level and is not expected to provide a significant share of the country’s energy supply in the future. Most hydropower resources are already exploited. Therefore, the French energy policy places high emphasis on improving energy independence through the development of domestic technologies, including nuclear power, alternative energies and renewables, in order to alleviate the country’s vulnerability to the volatility of fossil fuel international markets and to meet the Kyoto commitments.

Table 4 provides statistical data on energy and electricity supply and demand between 1971 and 2010. It illustrates the long term increase of nuclear power in primary electricity production to improve French energy independence. Since 1973, primary energy consumption underwent a regular increase, though much slighter in recent years, and decreasing (-0.13%) between 2000 and 2008). Domestic production accounts for some 50% of that consumption. The energy balance improved in the last two decades, mainly due to the rise of electricity exports. Energy intensity has lowered owing to structural changes in the economy, i.e. reduction in the share of energy intensive industries in total GDP, and to a lesser extent, to efficiency improvements.

TABLE 4. ENERGY STATISTICS

* Latest available data

** Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.

*** Solid fuels include coal, lignite

Source: AIE, CGDD

During the post-World War II reconstruction period, France’s economic and social development relied mainly on the deployment of energy intensive industries. The rapidly increasing energy needs were partly met by domestic coal and hydropower resources. However, since French domestic fossil fuel resources were limited and costly, the country had to rely heavily on imports for its energy supply. By 1973, imports were covering more than 75% of national energy consumption, compared to 38% in 1960. After the 70s oil crisis, the country was in need of better energy independence. At that time, implementation of a large nuclear power programme became a major element of France’s energy policy, including also energy saving measures, efficiency improvement and research and development in the field of renewable energies. The share of nuclear power in primary energy supply increased from less than 2% in the late seventies to about one third in the mid-nineties and reached 41% in 2008.

The main macro-economic impacts of France’s energy policy are: drastic improvement in the energy trade balance, stabilization of domestic energy prices at a rather low level, increased competitiveness of French companies on international markets and deployment of a nuclear industry sector covering reactor construction and the whole fuel cycle. Increased awareness of environmental constraints is reflected in the French energy mix, aiming to reduce the negative impacts of energy production on health and environment. In this regard, substitution of fossil fuel power in favour of nuclear energy for electricity generation resulted in a drastic reduction of atmospheric emissions from the energy sector.

Since 2005, France has focused its energy policy by introducing long term energy and climate objectives in the legislative framework. Since the end of 2008, France is also committed to the achievement of 3 x 20% of the European climate and energy package. By 2020, this commitment will consist of:

• a reduction of its greenhouse gas emissions. For this, France must contribute to the decreasing of 21% of EU emissions compared to 2005 in the sectors covered by the EU-ETS (European Union Emission Trading Scheme) introduced by Europe. These issues concern the highly emitting industries (sectors of chemistry, paper, electricity etc.) On the other hand, it also involves a reduction target of 14% of fugitive emissions (agriculture, transportation, building etc.)

• an achievement of a minimum target of 23% renewables in final energy consumption in 2020,

• an increase of energy efficiency to contribute to the 20% reduction European commitment by 2020 compared to the final energy consumption trend. This goal was reflected in the National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (PNAEE) defined in 2011. In the baseline scenario as a reference for PNAEE, the final energy consumption for energy uses must reach 163 Mtoe per year by 2020.

These national and international commitments the goals of which are are to diversify the energy mix led to the adoption of several laws. There are the planning law introduced in 2005 (law Pope) and Grenelle laws with a programme law, Grenelle 1, (3th August 2009) and implementing legislation, Grenelle 2 (12th July 2010). These laws introduce many devices and set ambitious sectoral targets for buildings and transport, like for the development of renewable energies.

Parallel to various commitments made by the Grenelle and POPE laws, French energy policy laws evolved strongly during the past decade, around the EU objective of electricity and gas markets opening to competition. Indeed, the liberalization of European electricity and gas markets initiated by the European Commission in 1996 and materialized in 1999 by Directive aims to ensure competition in these markets, and also security of supply energy for all consumers in terms of affordability and environmental protection. Important provisions have also been introduced to allow public authorities to ensure that the required investments to achieve the objectives and long-term energy policy are carried out, in terms of production equipment and energy transport.

• Electricity: the first mechanism was introduced into law in February 2000 with the multi-year investment programme of electricity (PPI). This is a prospective on the ten years horizon for electricity demand and supply, led by the Government on the basis of the forecast balance regularly established by RTE, and submitted to Parliament exercise. This report establishes the need for new capacity by industry. If these investments are not realized by market actors, the Government may process to a call of tender. Since 2005, PPI electricity is completed by the energy investment for heat production, and fixes objectives by sector per renewable energy, and possibly per geographic area.

• Gas: the law of January 2003 introduced a device of the same type with the Multiannual Indicative Plan (PIP). Prepared by the Government with the development plans established by GRTgaz and TIGF and submitted to Parliament, the PIP describes the expected changes in demand for natural gas and adequacy of gas infrastructure on the horizon of ten years, and the contribution of long-term contracts to supply the French market.

Since 2012, the investment plans of the transport managers are submitted to the approval of the CRE which holds a public consultation and in particular checks their coherence with the European electricity and gas decennial plans. They become mandatory for managers.

Finally, a complete set including electricity PPI, gas PIP and heat PPI which are articulated between them was presented in 2009. New reports for each sector must be submitted by the Government to Parliament in 2013.

The General Directorate for Energy and Climate (DGEC), under the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy (MEDDE) is in charge of implementing the French government policy on energy within the framework of the European directives. The Minister of MEDDE and the Minister for Health control health and environmental impacts of industrial facilities, including energy production and transformation plants.

The transmission grid operator RTE (Réseau de Transport de l'Electricité) is in charge of balancing generation and consumption over the grid, operating the power system, and maintaining and developing the public power transmission network. According to the law of 10 February 2000, RTE must establish at least every two years an evaluation of medium-term evolution of consumption, transport capacities, distribution, and exchanges with foreign grids, to help the government to elaborate the PPI (Programmation Pluriannuelle des Investissements) which is a report on medium-term power generation capacity investments planning that the energy Ministry must prepare and release to the Parliament. The last report on PPI was released in June 2009.

The state-owned utility Electricité de France (EDF) which was nationalized in 1946 along with the national coal, oil and gas companies, became a limited liability company in November 2004 and increased its capital by 30% in October 2005 (the law stipulates that the French State will hold at least 70% of the capital and voting rights in EDF SA). A public service contract between the government and EDF, laying down the terms and conditions for the implementation of its public service mission, was also signed at the same time. The French government appoints EDF’s chairman.

The European directives on the liberalization of the electricity market have been fully transposed into the French legislation.

The transmission grid operator RTE has been individualized inside EDF according to the European rules, and manages the load dispatch system independently. An independent regulatory authority, CRE (Commission de Régulation de l'Energie), guarantees equal access and competition to all market players. Since July 2007, any site (of a total 34 million sites) can choose to be supplied by a private utility or remain within regulated tariff (three possible contracts).

EDF is still the main operator for production and for distribution (ERDF). It operates all nuclear and part of the fossil-fuel fired and hydro-power plants. The other main suppliers are GDF-Suez (both companies merged in July 2008 and hold CNR and SHEM), SNET (groupe EON) for coal-fired plants and Wind electricity, and private manufacturers operating back-up or combined heat and power production units, as well as operators of small and medium size hydropower plants. 19 providers recorded on the CRE's suppliers' list actually operate on the French market.

Regarding distribution activities, local authorities grant the concession of well-defined areas. There are 170 distribution companies featuring municipality or joint ownership, with a 5% share of total electricity billing.

Table 5 shows the history of electricity production and Table 6 the energy related ratios. At present, about 90% of France’s electricity is of nuclear and renewable origin, the remaining 10% coming mainly from fossil fuels. Electricity demand grows in line with GDP, though at a lower rate.

TABLE 5: ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

(1) Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Source: RTE, CGDD

TABLE 6: ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

(1) Net import / Total energy consumption.

* Latest available data

^{Source: AIE, CGDD}

Historically, the development of nuclear power fell into four phases. During the 1960s, in line with the overall target of industrial independence and domestic technological development, indigenous designs were promoted (mainly natural uranium - gas cooled reactors and fast breeders). However, a PWR unit (Chooz-A) was built jointly with Belgium and a heavy water reactor in Brittany (Brennilis).

International developments in the nuclear industry led in the late sixties to the recognition that the French reactor designs could not compete with light water reactors. In 1969, the decision was made to build LWRs under license, whilst restructuring the domestic industry to improve competitiveness. Subsequently, the French government envisaged a construction programme of one or two PWRs a year.

From 1974 to 1981, emphasis was put on adaptation of the Westinghouse design for the development of a French standard. The nuclear programme accelerated the pace with the 1970s oil crisis. The unit-capacity of French reactors increased from 900 MWe to 1,300 MWe and later to 1,500 MWe. France developed and implemented, in parallel with the nuclear power plant programme, a strong domestic fuel cycle industry, built upon the infrastructure originally established by CEA.

In 1981, Framatome terminated its license with Westinghouse and negotiated a new agreement, giving greater autonomy. Framatome developed a wide range of servicing expertise and capabilities in reactor operation and maintenance services. In the same year, France had to adapt its energy policy to a lower than expected economic growth, together with the occurrence of over-capacity in the national electricity supply system. The achievement of the 1450 MWe N4 model was the landmark for a totally autonomous French reactor design.

Then, a new period started. In 2000, Framatome merged with the nuclear activities of Siemens (Germany). It resulted into Framatome Advanced Nuclear Power, which is integrated into the AREVA group and is now called AREVA NP (Nuclear Plant) since 2005. AREVA holds 66% and Siemens 34%. In 2006, the construction of a 1600 MW European Pressurized Reactor, designed by AREVA NC, was started in Olkiluoto (Finland). It was followed by another one in Flamanville (France) in 2007. In 2007, the construction of the first GEN IV reactor, ASTRID, in Marcoule, was decided and planned for 2020.

Nuclear Power organizational Chart

Source : DGEC

FIG 1. Location of nuclear power plants in France.

Nuclear power in the French electricity supply system amounts to 63,130 MWe. It consists of fifty-eight PWRs (thirty four 900 MWe, twenty 1300 MWe, and four 1500 MWe). One new EPR reactor is under construction at Flamanville. The EDF policy is to act as architect-engineer-operator, in order to master the design and improvement of plants along their operational life, by the integration of R&D, engineering and operating resources and benefiting of extensive experience feedback.

All the EDF NPPs undergo a systematic experience feedback process and every ten years a comprehensive periodic safety reassessment process, under the control of French Safety Authority (ASN). It enables to assess compliance with the licensing basis and up to date safety standards and to implement improvements as necessary, in order to sustain the EDF long term operation programme. After the Fukushima accident, a complementary safety assessment was performed, which enabled confirmation of the current level of safety with adequate margins regarding external hazards (earthquake, flooding, etc.) and resulted in additional provisions to cope with extreme hazards (fast action force, implementation of a hardened safety core, etc.). This process is described in detail in the reports presented at the Nuclear Safety Convention meetings (published on the ASN website).

In 2012, the nuclear plants accounted for 404,9 TWh (over 74% of total french electricity production), making France the world’s second largest nuclear power producer and  the average plant availability amounted to 79,7 % (top ten 91 to 99,5%). Table 7 lists the status of the power plants as of year-end 2012.

TABLE 7: STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Two main events regarding Energy policy happened in 2005-2006: the adoption of the 2005-781 Law on Energy, and the release of the report on investments “PPI” as stipulated in the Law 2000-108 on modernization and development of the public electricity service.

Law 2005-781 "energy orientation law" was adopted by the Parliament on 13 July 2005. It indicates the four main goals of the French energy policy:

• Contributing to energy independence and guaranteeing the security of supply

• Ensuring a competitive price of energy

• Preserving human health and the environment

• Guaranteeing the social and territorial cohesion.

To reach these goals, four main paths are followed:

• Controlling energy demand (by tax incentives, certification, etc.)

• Diversifying the energy portfolio; the law stipulates that the State may have a GEN IV reactor by 2015 in order to eventually replace French nuclear plants, and that 10% of energy needs may be satisfied with renewables by 2010. The site of Flamanville was chosen by EDF in March 2006 to host the demonstrator EPR, after the National Commission of Public Debate organized a debate on the subject from October 2005 to February 2006 and released a report on April 2006.

• Developing Research and Innovation in the energy sector; for this purpose, two new agencies, the National Agency for Research -ANR- and the Industrial Innovation Agency -AII- have been created.

• Ensuring the availability of transportation and storage facilities to respond to needs.

  Also, an important stipulation of the law is that Greenhouse Gas emissions must be four times less by 2050.

Law 2000-108 on modernization and development of the public electricity service of 10 February 2000 stipulates that a report on medium-term power generation capacity investments planning (PPI) must be prepared by the energy Ministry. The last report on PPI was officially released by the Government in 2008 and concerns the period 2009-2020. It identifies the following evolutions:

• Energy savings may be at the heart of any energy scenario, respecting Law 2005-781 on energy.

• A share of renewable energy sources (including hydro) of 23% is targeted for 2020, mainly with on-shore and offshore wind energy. 25 GWe by 2020 of wind capacity are targeted. Hydro may at least be maintained at its current level and could be developed until it produces 7 TWh more at most. Biomass may be developed up to a level of 2,3 TWh.

• To answer the evolution of the reglementary framework on thermal capacities over the 2009-2020 period that may lead to the shutdown of more than half the coal-fired plants capacity, 5,2 GWe of thermal plants may be constructed (2,6 GWe in semi base-load and 2,6 GWe in peak-load) by 2015, among which 0,8 GWe by 2009. Also, 2,6 GWe of old oil-fuelled plants may be modernized by EDF to re–enter into operation

Privatization and deregulation:

In the wake of successive legislations, the role of public authorities has changed.

The European directives on electricity market liberalization have been implemented in French legislation through law no. 2000-108 of 10 February 2000 on the modernization and development of the public electricity service. This law states in its first article:

“The purpose of the public electricity service is to guarantee electricity supplies throughout the country, having due regard to general interest.

In the context of the energy policy, the public electricity service contributes to the independence and security of supply, air quality and combating the greenhouse effect, optimum management and development of national resources, control of demand for energy, economic competitiveness and control of technical choices for the future, as well as efficiency in energy use.

It furthers social cohesion, by ensuring the universal right to electricity, contributes to combating exclusion, a balanced spatial development, having due regard to the environment, research and technological progress as well as defence and public order.

The public electricity service shall be organized by the State and the local authorities or their public co-operation establishments, each for its part.”

It follows from this article that the government retains the responsibility of establishing objectives regarding security of energy supply or regional planning. In addition it remains responsible for defining and enforcing adherence to the rules within which the various market players must act. Public authorities retain the traditional governmental activities such as preparation and development of regulations, energy taxation, public service obligations, personnel and installation safety, environment protection, in particular implementation of the European directives regarding greenhouse gas emissions and the share of renewable energies in electricity production. They also keep the general responsibility of insuring long term supply by supporting R&D efforts when private companies would not engage by themselves. In addition, through the procedure of call for bids or the authorization required for the new production plants (decree n° 2000-877 of 7 September 2000), the government retains the ability to set conditions for new power units, including the energetic, technical, economic, financial and geographical characteristics of the installation (for instance regarding greenhouse gas emissions or other pollutants, long term supply stability or use of domestic energy resources), and thus it influences the choice of the energy sources.

Regarding public service obligations, Law no. 2000-108 has created a specific contribution (CSPE) intended for compensating the excess costs attributable to public service obligations (purchase obligation for green electricity, power production in non-connected zones such as overseas départements, etc.). This fund is supplied by the different electricity producers established in the French territory, including auto-producers as well as by the electricity importers.

Regarding the European directive on renewable energy, France is due to raise the share of renewable electricity from the actual value of about 15% to 21%. To this end, and with hydro power availability almost fully used, special effort is made to increase the contribution of wind energy.

Since 1 July 2007 any company and household are actually free to choose their energy supplier on the French electricity market.

The public companies EDF and GDF, created in 1946, became limited liability companies on 19 November 2004, according to the Act of 9 August 2004. This new legal form means that both companies were no longer bound by the "specialty principle" that was attached to their status of state-owned company (EPIC) since 1946. GDF increased its capital by 30% in June 2005 and merged with Suez in July 2008. EDF increased its capital by 30% in October 2005 (the law stipulates that the French State holds at least 70% of the capital and voting rights in EDF SA and GDF SA).

The other public companies are now widely open to the private sector: the coal fired plants operator SNET (Société Nationale d’Electricité et de Thermique) is now owned by E.ON, the company Energie du Rhône, that trades the electricity production of the hydropower stations of CNR (Compagnie Nationale du Rhône) is partly owned by Electrabel (GDF-Suez).

In 1945, the French government created a national agency, the Commissariat ŕ l’Energie Atomique (CEA), for the development of all aspects of atomic energy, including both civil and military applications. Although its responsibilities changed through time, particularly with the transfer of some industrial activities to newly created subsidiaries, CEA has retained most of its early activities and interests in mean and long term R&D, notably in reactor design, fuel concepts, enrichment, waste transmutation and disposal, as well as in technology transfer and fundamental research.

In 2010, the CEA changed its name to better reflect the areas of research it conducted for many years in the field of low carbon energy: nuclear, but also solar, hydrogen generation, fuel cells, electricity storage, housing and transport, transformation of biomass into biofuels. This new name is the “Commissariat ŕ l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives” (Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission).

The CEA has joined the GIF (Generation IV International Forum) R&D programme to study promising technologies for future nuclear energy systems, addressing in the first place the issues of enhanced safety, sustainability, non-proliferation and economics, and is committed to realize a “Fourth Generation” prototype by 2020.

The French R&D programme on Future Nuclear Systems in the Generation IV framework is focused on fast reactor designs and advanced fuel cycles:

France has given priority to the development of sodium-cooled reactor technology, on which it has already acquired substantial experience and know-how.

The gas-cooled fast breeder reactor (RNR-G) is the alternative long-term technology. The aim is to demonstrate its feasibility as part of a European collaborative project with a view to possible deployment by 2040-2080.

French nuclear actors and potential industrial nuclear heat users are involved in the European « Sustainable Nuclear Energy Research » technological platform.

In June 2005, the site of Cadarache (France) was officially chosen to welcome ITER (International Thermoreactor Experimental Reactor). The construction has started.

The construction of the new experimental fission reactor (100 MWth) called Jules Horowitz was started in 2007. It will be used for experiments on nuclear materials and fuels and production of medical radio-isotopes. The reactor is due to enter into service in 2015

France is member of several international organizations, including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It participates in other bilateral and multilateral organizations such as the World Association of Nuclear Operators, with EDF as member.

France also participates in INPRO, the IAEA project bringing together developers and potential users of future nuclear technologies (or innovative nuclear systems).

As mentioned above, France is also member of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), the international collective of 12 countries (+ Euratom) dedicated to the development of the next generation of nuclear reactors and fuel cycle technologies.

France participates in IFNEC, the partnership of countries aiming to improve the proliferation-resistance of the nuclear fuel cycle while guaranteeing access to fuel supplies

France participates in the Multinational Design Evaluation Programme (MDEP),

a multinational initiative which aims to pool the knowledge of the safety regulators, including statutory responsibility for evaluating new reactors.

Nuclear legislation in France has developed in successive stages in line with technological advances and growth in the atomic energy field. Therefore, many of the enactments governing nuclear activities are to be found in the general French legislation on environmental protection, water supply, atmospheric pollution, public health and labour.

However, the French Parliament has adopted a number of specific enactments. Examples include Act No. 68-493 (30 October, 1968), setting special rules as to third party liability in the field of nuclear energy, which is distinct from the ordinary French law on third party liability; the 19 July, 1952 Act, now embodied in the Public Health Code, specifying licensing requirements for the use of radioisotopes; Act No. 80-572 of 25 July, 1980 on the protection and control of nuclear materials; Act No. 91-1381 on the management of nuclear wastes. In June 2006, Act 2006-686 on transparency and safety was adopted.

Although French nuclear law is characterized by its variety of sources, as in other countries where nuclear energy has developed, the original features of this legislation derive chiefly from international recommendations or regulations. For example, radiation protection standards are derived from the Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and Directives issued by the European Union (formerly the European Community). Likewise, the French Act of 1968 on the liability of nuclear operators is directly derived from the Paris Convention of 29 July, 1960.

French nuclear legislation began to develop from the time the CEA, the public agency set up by the State in 1945 [Ordinance No. 45-2563 of 18 October, 1945] and formerly reporting directly to the prime minister, no longer held a monopoly for nuclear activities, in other words from the time nuclear energy applications entered the industrial stage, thus requiring the involvement of new nuclear operators. This development had several landmarks: in 1963, a system for licensing and controlling major nuclear installations was introduced, setting government responsibility in matters of population and occupational safety (Decree of 11 December, 1963). Prior to this, procedures concerning the licensing and control of industrial activities were dealt with by the Préfet for each Département. In 1973, this system was expanded to cover the development of the nuclear power programme, and better define the role of government authorities. Finally, the decree of 20 June, 1966 included Euratom Directives as part of the French radiation protection regulations.

In the course of the 1980s, the enactments setting up the CEA were amended so as to strengthen its inter-ministerial status and a tripartite Board of Administration including staff representatives, was created. However, governmental decisions are prepared by the CEA, which acts as a restricted inter-ministerial committee on nuclear energy matters. CEA is now answerable to the Minister for Industry, to the Minister for Research [Decrees No. 93-1272 of 1 December, 1993 and No. 93-796 of 16 April, 1993] and to the Minister of Defence. The main task of CEA was laid down on September 1992 by the Government: concentrate on developing the control of atom uses for purposes of energy, health, defence and industry, while remaining attentive to the requests made by its industrial and research partners. More specifically, the inter-ministerial committee of 1 June, 1999 requested CEA to “strengthen long-term research on future reactors capable of reducing, and even eliminate the production of long-lived radio-active waste”. In addition, CEA was given a particular responsibility for R&D on alternative and renewable energies.

The regulations for large nuclear installations, referred to above, have been supplemented with regard to procedures by an Instruction of 27 March, 1973 and a Decision of the same date (amended by a Decision of 17 December, 1976), which are internal instruments issued by the Minister for Industry. The authorities primarily involved in the licensing procedure for setting up large nuclear installations are the Minister for Industry and the Minister for Ecology and Sustainable Development. For this purpose, the Central Service for Nuclear Installations Safety (SCSIN), set up in 1973 within the Ministry of Industry, had been reshuffled as the Directorate for Nuclear Installations Safety (DSIN).

In the beginning of 2002, the DGSNR was created as a result of the merger of DSIN and the former Central Board for Protection against Ionizing Radiations (Office de Protection contre les rayonnements ionisants, OPRI). As a consequence, in addition to nuclear safety, DGSNR also retained the responsibilities of the former OPRI regarding radioprotection, i.e. carrying out measurements or analytical work in order to determine the level of radioactivity or ionizing radiation that might become hazardous to health in various environmental situations, for individuals as well as for the population as a whole. It also co-ordinated and defined controls for the radiation protection of workers and was involved in the safety plans to be put in action in case of a radioactive incident. DGSNR reported to the Ministers for Industry, Health and Ecology and Sustainable Development. At the local level, DGSNR’s actions were relayed through the nuclear divisions of the Regional Directorates for Industry, Research and Environment (DRIRE). These Directorates are in charge of the survey of nuclear installations and monitoring reactor shutdowns and all pressurized components. They also provide technical support to the “préfet”, the Government local representative, in particular in case of accident.

DGSNR was assisted in decision making by the Institute for Radiation-Protection and Nuclear Safety (Institut de Radio-Protection et de Sűreté Nucléaire - IRSN), itself resulting from the merger of the former IPSN (Institut de Protection et de sűreté nucléaire) and part of the OPRI. The IRSN can also undertake studies or research on protection and nuclear safety problems on request of any concerned ministerial department or agency (Law n°2001-398 AFSSE of 9 May, 2001).

In June 2006, the Act 2006-686 on transparency and safety created the ASN. It is an independent administrative agency headed by 5 members designated by the President of the Republic and the Presidents of the two Parliament Assemblies. The agency is consulted before decisions concerning nuclear safety, nuclear security, and radioprotection are taken by decrees. It can also complete the legislation on technical matters but its decisions may be homologated by the Ministers in charge of these questions. The ASN also has the responsibility of:

• Organizing and directing the control of nuclear installations (designation of inspectors, delivery of permits etc.).

• Monitoring radioprotection over the national territory.

• Proposing and organizing public information on nuclear safety.

• Establishing the procedures for licensing large nuclear installations (licenses for setting up, commissioning, disposal, etc.).

• Helping the management of emergency situation in the event of an accident involving radioactive exposures.

First, ASN examines requests for permission to a creation or decommissioning of nuclear installations, as starting a new reactor, extending its lifetime, the use of MOX fuel, etc. It makes recommendations to the Government on the decrees to be in these areas. After this obligatory step, if the opinion is favorable, French government concludes with the publication of the relevant decree, formalizing authorization.