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KOREA, REPUBLIC OF

(Updated 2011)

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

1.1 Country overview

1.1.1 Governmental System

FIGURE 1. GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM

Source: Cheongwadae, Office of the President of the Republic of Korea

(http://english.president.go.kr/)

1.1.2 Geography and Climate

The Korean Peninsula is located in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, on the east coast of the Eurasian Continent and 70% of the land area is mountainous. The peninsula has been divided into two countries, the Republic of Korea, commonly referred to as South Korea, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, otherwise known as North Korea, since 1945. The Korean Peninsula is 223,035km², while the administrative area of the Republic of Korea is 99,897km². The DPRK borders China and Russia to the north and the ROK to the South. In addition to the land border or demilitarized zone with North Korea, South Korea also has a close sea border to Japan.

The Republic of Korea (Korea for short) lies in the temperate zone with four distinct seasons. Due to its geographical position, it shows complex climate characteristics which reveal both continental and oceanic features. It has a wide temperature difference between summer and winter and heavy precipitation in comparison with that of the continent. Also there is a distinct monsoon season, a rainy period from the East-Asian Monsoon, locally called "Changma", and also experiences typhoons in late summer to early fall and heavy snowfalls in winter. It belongs to a relatively wet region due to its position along the rim of the western Pacific Ocean.

FIGURE 2. CLIMATE OF KOREA

1.1.3 Population

The population in Korea as of the end of 2010, estimated in November 2006, was nearly 49 million people (Table 1). Population density was nearly 490 persons per square kilometre, with 82.1% living in urban areas.

TABLE 1. POPULATION INFORMATION

							Average annual growth rate (%)*
Year	1970	1980	1990	2000	2005	2010	2000 to 2010
Population (millions)	32.2	38.1	42.9	47.0	48.1	48.9	0.40
Population density (inhabitants/km²)	328	385	432	473	483	490	0.35
Urban Population as % of total	41.2	57.3	74.4	79.7	81.5	82.1	0.24
Area (1000 km²)	99.720

* [(Yn/Yo)^ ^(1/n)-1] * 100

Source: Korean Statistical Information Service (http://kosis.kr/eng)

1.1.4 Economic Data

Economic statistics for Korea are regularly published by the Bank of Korea. Table 2 shows the historical Gross Domestic Product (GPD) statistics.

TABLE 2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

							Average annual growth rate (%)
	1970	1980	1990	2000	2005	2009	2000 to 2009
GDP (millions of current US$)	8,100	64,300	270,300	533,500	844,700	832,900	5.1
GDP (millions of constant 2005 US$)	180,532	239,879	521,138	614,327	844,700	768,147	2.5
GDP per capita (PPP* US$/capita)	822	2,746	8,535	17,219	22,783	27,658**	6.1
GDP per capita (current US$/capita)	255	1,688	6,306	11,350	17,548	17,085	4.6

* PPP: Purchasing Power Parity

** 2008 data

Source: The Bank of Korea Economic Statistics System (http://ecos.bok.or.kr/EIndex_en.jsp) and OECD (http://www.oecd.org/)

1.2 Energy Information

1.2.1 Estimated available energy

Table 3 shows the energy reserves of Korea as of the end of 2009.

TABLE 3. ESTIMATED AVAILABLE ENERGY SOURCES

	Estimated available energy sources
	Fossil Fuels			Nuclear	Renewables
	Solid	Liquid	Gas	Uranium	Hydro	Other Renewables
Total amount in specific units*	1,360	-	59	-	0.00161	0.001

* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m3; Uranium: Metric tons;

Hydro(supply capacity), Renewables(generating capacity): TW

Source: Korea Resources Corporation(http://www.kores.or.kr/),

Korea National Oil Corporation (http://www.knoc.co.kr/ENG),

Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng)

New & Renewable Energy Statistics 2009 (Korea Energy Management Corporation,

http://www.kemco.or.kr/new_eng)

1.2.2 Energy Statistics

TABLE 4. ENERGY STATISTICS

							Average annual growth rate (%)
	1970	1980	1990	2000	2005	2009	2000 to 2009
Energy consumption* (EJ)
- Total	0.82	1.84	3.90	8.08	9.57	10.19	2.61
- Solids***	0.24	0.55	1.02	1.80	2.29	2.87	5.35
- Liquids	0.39	1.12	2.10	4.20	4.25	4.28	0.23
- Gases	-	-	0.13	0.79	1.27	1.42	6.69
- Nuclear	-	0.04	0.55	1.14	1.54	1.33	1.72
- Hydro	0.01	0.02	0.07	0.06	0.05	0.05	-1.60
- Other Renewables	0.18	0.11	0.03	0.09	0.17	0.23	11.07
Energy production(EJ)
- Total	0.43	0.52	0.98	1.37	1.83	1.68	2.32
- Solids**	0.22	0.36	0.32	0.08	0.05	0.05	-5.06
- Liquids	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
- Gases	-	-	-	-	0.02	0.02	-
- Nuclear	-	0.04	0.55	1.14	1.54	1.33	1.72
- Hydro	0.01	0.02	0.07	0.06	0.05	0.05	-1.60
- Other Renewables	0.20	0.10	0.03	0.09	0.17	0.23	11.07
Net import(Import - Export) (EJ)
- Total	0.39	1.32	3.02	7.13	7.97	8.81	2.38

* Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption + Net import (Import - Export) of secondary energy.

** Solid fuels include coal, lignite, etc.

Source: Korea Energy Statistics Information System (http://www.kesis.net/)

1.2.3 Energy policy

The government has announced a long-term strategy in August 2008 that will determine the direction of its national energy policy until 2030. The National Energy Committee mapped out the plan on the basis of the 3Es—Energy Security, Economic Efficiency and Environmental Protection. The National Energy Committee is chaired by the President and comprises senior government officials, and leading members of the business community, academia and civic groups. Korea will reach its long-term energy goals by taking the following steps:

• Improving energy efficiency and reducing energy consumption. By 2030, Korea will reduce its energy intensity level to 0.185 TOE/US$1,000 from the current level of 0.341 TOE/US$1,000, a difference of 46 percent. It will also cut energy consumption by 42 million TOE.

• Increasing the supply of clean energy and reducing the use of fossil fuels. By 2030, fossil fuels will account for only 61 percent of total energy consumption, while the use of renewable energy will increase to 11 percent.

• Boosting the green energy industry. By 2030, Korea’s green energy technologies will be comparable to levels of most advanced countries.

1.3 Electricity system

1.3.1 Electricity policy and decision making process

The principle ministry responsible for the developing electricity policy in Korea is the Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE). MKE works in consultation and close co-operation with the Ministry of Strategy and Finance (MOSF), six generation companies (GenCos) and the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO). With energy being regarded as a key component of Korea’s rapid economic development, the government has maintained a strong presence in the sector.

MKE, either through direct or indirect government ownership of energy companies, utilities and several energy research institutes, has maintained a high degree of control in all aspects of energy policy development and implementation.

The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) has the overall responsibility for ensuring nuclear safety through regulatory activities and related R&D. The MEST is also a policy maker for the nuclear sector.

MKE continues to establish the biannual Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand (BPE for short) that provides the long-term energy policy directions and information on electricity supply and demand such as the electricity facility plan to secure stable electricity supply. Generation companies can apply for the government approval of their generation business and power plant construction plans based on the BPE.

The 5^th BPE was established in 2010 and covers a planning period from 2010 to 2024. The BPE was made based on the construction intentions of GenCos and the demand forecast provided by Korea Power Exchange (KPX). For establishing the plan, the government reviewed and prepared the working drafts of four subcommittees (Generating capacity expansion, Demanding forecast, Demand side management and Transmission system expansion), and collected opinions on every aspect from various economic organizations through a public hearing.

The main objectives of the 5^th BPE is as follows:

• Gradually expanding base-load generating facilities for establishing the economical electricity supply system

• Composing the environment-friendly power supply considering the reduction in national greenhouse gases

• Minimizing uncertainties of the supply and demand outlook

1.3.2 Structure of electric power sector

[Generation]

Six generation companies (GenCos), i.e. five thermal power GenCos and one hydro-nuclear power GenCo, generated 91.7% of electricity in Korea in June 2010. The remainder mostly came from independent generators and industry self-generators producing for their own use and selling back to the grid.

[Transmission]

Korea’s transmission grid consisted of over 30,297 c-km of transmission lines as of June 2010. KEPCO owns and operates these transmission systems. Transmission voltages in Korea are 765kV and 345kV for trunk routes, and 154kV or 66kV for local networks. The 66kV lines are being replaced and KEPCO is now carrying out the second stage of a 765kV power transmission project that will serve as the backbone of the transmission in the 21st century. The power network of Jeju Island is connected to the mainland transmission system by submarine high-voltage direct current(HVDC) cables(103c-km). The Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems is used to remotely monitor and control substation operations. In addition to equipment and facility upgrading, more substations are being automated and built indoors to secure power supply reliability.

[Distribution]

Korea’s distribution grid utilized over 424,558 c-km of transmission lines as of June 2010. There is only one distribution network operator in Korea, which is KEPCO. KEPCO maintains a highly credible power distribution system which ensures a stable power supply. In June 2010, the rate of power loss in transmission and distribution was 3.73%.

1.3.3 Main indicators

TABLE 5. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

							Average annual growth rate (%)
	1970	1980	1990	2000	2005	2009	2000 to 2009
Capacity of electrical plants (GW)
- Thermal	2.18	7.65	11.07	31.59	40.50	49.10	5.02
- Hydro	0.33	1.16	2.34	3.15	3.88	5.52	0.64
- Nuclear	-	0.59	7.62	13.72	17.72	17.72	2.88
- Wind	-	-	-	-	0.09	0.35	-
- Geothermal	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
- other renewables	-	-	-	-	0.07	0.78	-
- Total	2.51	9.39	21.02	48.45	62.26	73.47	4.73
Electricity production (TWh)
- Thermal	7.95	31.7	48.42	151.83	209.51	278.40	6.97
- Hydro	1.22	1.98	6.36	5.61	5.19	5.64	0.06
- Nuclear	-	3.48	52.89	108.96	146.78	147.78	3.44
- Wind	-	-	-	-	0.13	0.69	-
- Geothermal	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
- other renewables	-	-	-	-	3.87	1.09	-
- Total (1)	9.17	37.24	107.67	266.40	364.64	433.60	5.56
Total Electricity consumption (TW.h)	7.74	32.73	94.38	239.54	332.41	394.49	5.70

(1) Electricity transmission losses are not deducted.

Source: Korea Electric Power Corporation (http://www.kepco.co.kr/eng)

TABLE 6. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

	1970	1980	1990	2000	2005	2009
Energy consumption per capita (GJ/capita)	25.24	48.15	90.85	170.82	198.87	208.92
Electricity consumption per capita (kW.h/capita)	240	859	2,206	5,067	6,883	8,092
Electricity production/Energy production (%)	7.68	27.36	99.11	175.47	179.21	232.29
Nuclear/Total electricity (%)	0.00	9.34	49.12	40.90	40.25	34.08
Ratio of external dependency (%) (1)	47.56	73.37	87.95	97.15	96.66	96.50

(1) Net import / Total energy consumption.

Source: Energy Info. Korea 2010 by Korea Energy Economics Institute (http://www.kesis.net/)

2. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1 Historical development and current organizational structure

2.1.1 Overview

Nuclear activities in Korea were initiated in 1957 when Korea became a member of the IAEA. The following year, Korea passed its Atomic Energy Law. In 1959, the Office of Atomic Energy was established in conformity with the global trend toward development of peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Korea has carried out a very ambitious nuclear power program since the 1970s in parallel with the nation’s industrialization policy. Korea has maintained a strong commitment to nuclear power development as an integral part of its national energy policy, aiming to reduce external vulnerability and insure against global fossil fuel shortages. Currently, Korea has one of the most dynamic nuclear power programs.

During the early years of nuclear power development, power plants were constructed mostly through “Turn-Key” contracts, providing little opportunity for domestic industries to participate in the construction. Since then, however, domestic participation in overall construction management, design, equipment supply and civil construction has continuously increased through the adoption of the “Non Turn-Key” approaches. As part of this trend, a high degree of technological self-reliance in various fields of the nuclear industry was achieved through the construction of Yonggwang-3 & 4. At present, nuclear power plant technology and related fuel cycle technologies are maturing.

The first domestic reactors were Ulchin-3 & 4, 1,000 MW(e) PWRs initially called the Korea Standard Nuclear Power Plant (KSNP), but now referred to as the OPR1000, which entered commercial operation in 1998. The Ulchin-3 & 4 became the reference plant for OPR1000 plants thereafter. Six more OPR1000 plants are being built at Ulchin, Shin-Kori and Shin-Wolsong as shown in Table 7.

The newly advanced reactors being built at Shin Kori-3 & 4 are 1,400MW(e) PWRs, called APR1400. These third generation reactors have been under construction since September 2007. The plants are evolutionally advanced in the field of technology, safety and economics. Two more APR1400 plants are being built at Shin-Ulchin site as shown in Table 8.

2.1.2 Current organizational chart(s)

In Korea, basic energy-related activities are planned and carried out by the National Energy Committee (NEC) per every five years according to the National Energy Fundamental Act. The chairman of the NEC is the President. The NEC’s principle work is to establish long-term energy strategy and to determine the direction of national energy policy.

But nuclear-related activities are planned and carried out by various organizations such as the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST), and the Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE).

Under the Atomic Energy Act, the AEC is the highest decision-making body on policy issues and utilization of nuclear energy. The AEC is composed of nine to eleven members representing various sectors of the government, academia and industry. The chairman of the AEC is the Prime Minister.

The MEST has the overall responsibility for the nation’s nuclear research and development, and regulatory and licensing work. In order to deal with important nuclear safety issue, the NSC was established as part of the MEST in December 1996. The NSC consists of seven to nine members, including the Minister of Education, Science and Technology, who serves as chairman.

The MKE is responsible for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, the nuclear fuel supply, and the management of low and intermediate-level radioactive waste.

FIGURE 3. MAIN NUCLEAR-RELATED ORGANIZATIONS IN KOREA

2.2 Nuclear power plants: Overview

2.2.1 Status and performance of nuclear power plants

Currently, a total gross capacity of 21.5GWe is installed in the 21 operating Korean NPPs, comprising of 17 pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and 4 CANDU pressurized heavy water reactors(PHWRs). There are 7 units under construction. Table 7 shows the status of NPPs as of February 2011 and Figure 4 shows the geographical location.

TABLE 7. STATUS AND PERFORMANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Station	Type	Net Capacity	Status	Operator	Reactor Supplier	Construction Date	Criticality Date	Grid Date	Commercial Date	Shutdown Date
KORI-1	PWR	576	Operational	KHNP	WH	1972-04-27	1977-06-19	1977-06-26	1978-04-29
KORI-2	PWR	637	Operational	KHNP	WH	1977-12-04	1983-04-09	1983-04-22	1983-07-25
KORI-3	PWR	1007	Operational	KHNP	WH	1979-10-01	1985-01-01	1985-01-22	1985-09-30
KORI-4	PWR	1007	Operational	KHNP	WH	1980-04-01	1985-10-26	1985-12-31	1986-04-29
SHIN-KORI-1	PWR	1001	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2006-06-16	2010-07-15	2010-08-04	2011-02-28
ULCHIN-1	PWR	945	Operational	KHNP	FRAM	1983-01-26	1988-02-25	1988-04-07	1988-09-10
ULCHIN-2	PWR	942	Operational	KHNP	FRAM	1983-07-05	1989-02-25	1989-04-14	1989-09-30
ULCHIN-3	PWR	994	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1993-07-21	1997-12-21	1998-01-06	1998-08-11
ULCHIN-4	PWR	998	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1993-11-01	1998-12-14	1998-12-28	1999-12-31
ULCHIN-5	PWR	1001	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1999-10-01	2003-11-28	2003-12-18	2004-07-29
ULCHIN-6	PWR	1001	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2000-09-29	2004-12-16	2005-01-07	2005-04-22
WOLSONG-1	PHWR	597	Operational	KHNP	AECL	1977-10-30	1982-11-21	1982-12-31	1983-04-22
WOLSONG-2	PHWR	710	Operational	KHNP	AECL/DHI	1992-06-22	1997-01-29	1997-04-01	1997-07-01
WOLSONG-3	PHWR	707	Operational	KHNP	AECL/DHI	1994-03-17	1998-02-19	1998-03-25	1998-07-01
WOLSONG-4	PHWR	708	Operational	KHNP	AECL/DHI	1994-07-22	1999-04-10	1999-05-21	1999-10-01
YONGGWANG-1	PWR	953	Operational	KHNP	WH	1981-06-04	1986-01-31	1986-03-05	1986-08-25
YONGGWANG-2	PWR	947	Operational	KHNP	WH	1981-12-10	1986-10-15	1986-11-11	1987-06-10
YONGGWANG-3	PWR	997	Operational	KHNP	DHICKAEC	1989-12-23	1994-10-13	1994-10-30	1995-03-31
YONGGWANG-4	PWR	994	Operational	KHNP	DHICKAEC	1990-05-26	1995-07-07	1995-07-18	1996-01-01
YONGGWANG-5	PWR	988	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1997-06-29	2001-11-24	2001-12-19	2002-05-21
YONGGWANG-6	PWR	996	Operational	KHNP	DHICKOPC	1997-11-20	2002-09-01	2002-09-16	2002-12-24
SHIN-KORI-2	PWR	960	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2007-06-05	2011-07-15	2011-08-01	2011-12-31
SHIN-KORI-3	PWR	1340	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2008-10-16			2013-09-30
SHIN-KORI-4	PWR	1340	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2009-09-15			2014-09-30
SHIN-WOLSONG-1	PWR	960	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2007-11-20	2011-05-09	2011-05-28	2011-10-01
SHIN-WOLSONG-2	PWR	960	Under Construction	KHNP	DHICKOPC	2008-09-23	2012-05-09	2012-05-28	2012-10-01

Source: PRIS database (www.iaea.org/pris).

FIGURE 4. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF NPPs IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

2.2.2 Plant upgrading, plant life management and license renewals

[Plant upgrading and plant life management]

Beginning in September 2002, KHNP had been conducted Power Uprating Projects for Kori-3 & 4 to uprate their reactor thermal power and eventually to increase their electrical output. Kori-3 & 4 reached their new rated thermal power(2,900MWth, 4.5% uprating) on December 2009 and February 2009, respectively, and increased their electrical output by 34.1MWe from 999MWe (original output) to 1,033.1MWe (uprated output).

To manage major Systems, Structures and Components (SSCs) effectively and to reduce the maintenance cost of the operating nuclear power plants, Long Term Asset Management (LTAM) strategies, based on equipment reliability processes (INPO AP-913), were developed in KHNP as a part of plant life management. Pilot LTAM projects were performed for the twenty five kinds of SSCs in Kori-2, 3, 4 from February 2007 to August 2009.

[License renewals (Continued operation)]

The license renewal period of nuclear power plants (NPPs) is ten years according to the current legal framework in the Republic of Korea. It is mandatory for the utility to conduct a Periodic Safety Review (PSR) for its operating NPPs every ten years and to submit PSR reports for the regulatory review and approval. The definition of Continued Operation (CO) is stated in the nuclear law enforcement ordinance and, under this legal statement, it is possible to extend a plant’s operation beyond its design lifetime. A enhanced PSR report, including a Lifetime Evaluation Report(LER) and Radiological Environment Report(RER), should be submitted by the utility to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology(MEST) in the CO application two to five years before the end of the original license period. The LER of the CO includes identifying the Systems, Structures, and Components (SSCs) within the scope of the CO, Aging Management Programs (AMPs) and Time Limited Aging Analyses (TLAAs).

In June 2006, KHNP submitted the safety evaluation report for continued operation of Kori-1 to the MEST 2006 and MEST officially permitted continued operation on December 11, 2006. The safety evaluation report on Wolsong-1 was also submitted in December 2009.

2.3 Future development of Nuclear Power

2.3.1 Nuclear power development strategy

According to the 5th Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand, which was finalized by MKE in December 2010, 13 new nuclear power units will be constructed by 2024. The share of nuclear power capacity and nuclear power generation will increase from 31.4% in 2010 to 48.5% by 2024.

TABLE 8. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Station/Project Name	Type	Capacity	Expected Construction Start Year	Expected Commercial Year
SHIN KORI-5	PWR	1400	2014	2018
SHIN KORI-6	PWR	1400	2015	2019
SHIN ULCHIN-3	PWR	1400	2016	2020
SHIN ULCHIN-4	PWR	1400	2017	2021
SHIN KORI-7	PWR	1500	-	2022
SHIN KORI-8	PWR	1500	-	2023

To enhance the safety and economics of nuclear power plants, KHNP has been developing an advanced power reactor with a capacity of 1,400MWe called the APR1400 since 1995 on the basis of the technological self-reliance of the OPR1000.

The APR1400 is a third generation light water reactor. It is expected to be ten times safer than that of the OPR1000. In terms of economic benefits, it will be more competitive than any existing nuclear power units or thermal plants. The standard design of the APR1400 was certified through a stringent safety review by the Korean regulatory agency in May 2002 and appraised as the new design concept with enhanced safety and economical competitiveness. Shin Kori-3 & 4 will be the first APR1400 plants and are now under construction at the site adjacent to the present Kori nuclear power station. They are scheduled to start commercial operation in September 2013 and 2014, respectively.

2.3.2 Project management

In 1985, the Korean government made the landmark decision to implement a national self-reliance policy and allocated the roles and duties among the domestic nuclear organizations to streamline the nuclear power industry.

- Total Project Management	KHNP
- Architectural Engineering and NSSS Design	KEPCO E&C (formerly KOPEC)
- Nuclear Fuel Design and Fabrication	KEPCO NF (formerly KNF)
- Research & Development	KAERI
- NSSS, Turbine and Generator Manufacturing	Doosan (formerly Hanjung)
- Safety Regulation	KINS

FIGURE 5. STRUCTURE OF NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY

.

Doosan has taken part in plant manufacturing by virtue of its capability to supply heavy industrial construction equipment and machinery. KEPCO E&C was established in 1975 to foster the nation’s self-reliance in power technologies, particularly in nuclear power engineering for pressurized water reactors. KEPCO E&C has taken the prime architect engineer’s responsibility. KEPCO NF was established in November 1982 by joint investment of KEPCO and KAERI to localize the nuclear fuel fabrication for pressurized water reactors and CANDU reactors. KINS conducts safety reviews and inspections of nuclear facilities or radiation facilities.

The technological self-reliance strategy has been applied since construction of Yonggwang-3&4. Domestic nuclear industries became the projects’ prime contractors on the condition of technology support, guidance and then transfer from foreign subcontractors.

2.3.3 Project funding

KHNP works to secure the reasonable sales price of electricity and reduce the cost of production in order to maximize retained earnings which can be used for future capital expenditure. To acquire additional funding, in the short-term, KHNP is issuing corporate bonds with diversified maturities to attract national and international investors.

In the long-term, KHNP is considering an IPO(Initial Public Offering) to issue additional shares in the open capital market and other specific financing schemes like SPC(Special Purpose Company) to maintain financial soundness.

2.3.4 Electric grid development

According to the 5th Basic Plan of Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand, which was finalized by the MKE in December 2010, 68-c-km-long transmission lines for Shin Kori-1&2 and 172-c-km-long transmission lines for Shin Kori-3&4 will be added to the current grid.

2.3.5 Site Selection

TABLE 9. LIST OF SELECTED NPPs SITES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Station	Source of Cooling Water	Operation Status	Transportation Infrastructure	Approval Status
KORI-1	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
KORI-2	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
KORI-3	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
KORI-4	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
SHIN KORI-1	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
SHIN KORI-2	Sea Water	Under Construction	Wharf Main Access Road	Construction Permit
SHIN KORI-3	Sea Water	Under Construction	Main Access Road	Construction Permit
SHIN KORI-4	Sea Water	Under Construction	Main Access Road	Construction Permit
YONGGWANG-1	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
YONGGWANG-2	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
YONGGWANG-3	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
YONGGWANG-4	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
YONGGWANG-5	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
YONGGWANG-6	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
WOLSONG-1	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
WOLSONG-2	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
WOLSONG-3	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
WOLSONG-4	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
SHIN WOLSONG-1	Sea Water	Under Construction	Main Access Road	Construction Permit
SHIN WOLSONG-2	Sea Water	Under Construction	Main Access Road	Construction Permit
ULCHIN-1	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
ULCHIN-2	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
ULCHIN-3	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
ULCHIN-4	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
ULCHIN-5	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating License
ULCHIN-6	Sea Water	Operational	Wharf Main Access Road	Operating Permits
SHIN ULCHIN-1	Sea Water	Under Construction	Main Access Road	Execution Plan Approval
SHIN ULCHIN-2	Sea Water	Under Construction	Main Access Road	Execution Plan Approval

2.4 Organizations involved in construction of NPPs

Since the Korean government decided to pursue technological self-reliance in 1985, the structure of the domestic projects in Korea has been similar to that shown in Figure 5.

KHNP is in charge of total project management from construction to start-up, as an Owner. KHNP designated KEPCO E&C for Architect/Engineering of plants and NSSS design, DOOSAN for the supply of the NSSS and the Turbine/Generator, and KEPCO NF for nuclear fuel. KAERI contributes to the nuclear technology research and development. Construction is performed by several domestic companies, such as HYUNDAI, DAEWOO, SAMSUNG, etc.

Since 2009, KEPCO has determined that KEPCO will lead oversea nuclear projects while KEPCO and KHNP will jointly participate in project management as an EPC contractor as shown in Figure 6.

FIGURE 6. STRUCTURE OF OVERSEA’S NUCLEAR PROJECTS

2.5 Organizations involved in operation of NPPs

Figure 5 shows the main organizations involved in nuclear power plant operation. Additionally, KEPCO KPS provides maintenance services for all the operating nuclear power plants, while 5 individual companies, including Doosan, are providing maintenance services for Ulchin-5, 6 start-up.

2.6 Organizations involved in decommissioning of NPPs

According to Atomic Energy Act, KHNP, the sole NPP operator in the Republic of Korea, has responsibility for decommissioning of NPPs. In order to do this, KHNP makes yearly deposits toward the cost of plant decommissioning and has accumulated theses funds as an in-house liability since 1983.

2.7 Fuel cycle including waste management

The Republic of Korea’s demand for nuclear fuel cycle service has continuously increased with the expansion of its nuclear power capacity. KHNP, the only one consumer of nuclear fuel in the Republic of Korea, has guidelines in place for a procurement strategy which ensures the stable supply of nuclear fuel and the economic efficiency. KHNP has maintained an optimal supply and demand plan through both long-term contracts and spot-market purchases and adoption of international open bid process.

According to the guidelines, in 2010, KHNP imported uranium concentrates from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Kazakhstan, Russia and the U.S. and conversion & enrichment services from Canada, France, Germany, Russia, the U.K. and the U.S.

Fuel fabrication services are fully localized by the KEPCO Nuclear Fuel (KEPCO NF). The spent fuel is stored in the spent fuel storage facilities of their respective nuclear power plants. The national policy for spent fuel management, including construction of a centralized spent fuel interim-storage facility, will be determined at a later date.

2.8 Research and development

2.8.1 R&D organizations

The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) shall formulate the National Nuclear R&D Program according to a sector-by-sector implementation plan.

The Nuclear R&D Program, otherwise called the “National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Program,” is mainly implemented by the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), Korea Institute of Radiological & Medical Sciences (KIRMS) and Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS). Additional industry-led R&D Programs are implemented by Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. (KHNP), KEPCO Engineering & Construction Company, Inc. (KEPCO E&C), KEPCO Plant Service and Engineering CO., Ltd (KEPCO KPS) and KEPCO Nuclear Fuel (KNF), among other companies.

2.8.2 Development of advanced nuclear technologies

The “National Medium-and-Long-term Nuclear R&D Program” was launched in June 1992 as a 10-year (1992-2001) program. However, it was modified into a new R&D program for the 1997-2006 and 2007-2011 terms, to take account of major changes in technological development situations. The program is funded by both the government and the nuclear industry.

The national R&D Program is focused on five research fields including: 1) advanced reactor & fuel; 2) nuclear safety; 3) radioactive waste management; 4) application of radiation and radioisotopes; and 5) fundamental technologies.

Projects for further development of advanced reactors and fuel cycle technology are in progress under the mid and long-term nuclear R&D program. As a near term reactor option, the Korea Next Generation Reactor, which is called Advanced Power Reactor 1400, has been developed and is under construction. Building on the APR1400, the Advanced Power Reactor Plus is in development. For the mid and long-term reactor options, the Korea Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor (KALIMER) and other advanced reactors, as a member of Gen IV programs, are also under development.

Even though the Republic of Korea has applied a “wait and see policy” for spent fuel management, several alternative studies on spent fuel management have been carried out. R&D activities on the disposal and treatment of radioactive wastes as well as the decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities are in progress.

Several research projects concerning radiation and radioisotopes, including the production of radioisotopes, have been or are being conducted for applications in various areas such as medicine, agriculture, food, industry, etc.

2.8.3 International co-operation and initiatives

The international nuclear society has a common recognition of the expanded role of nuclear energy systems to cope with increasing energy demand and deal with climate change. International cooperative programs have been initiated for the development of new nuclear energy systems that with significant improvements in safety, economics, resource reutilization, environmental friendliness, and proliferation resistance.

Korea has been actively participating in these programs. These programs include the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycle (INPRO) and the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC).

The Generation-IV(Gen-IV) nuclear energy systems will provide significantly higher improvements in the sustainability, safety, economics, and nuclear non-proliferation when compared with existing nuclear systems. The resulting improved nuclear energy systems are projected to be commercialized after 2030. Advanced countries in nuclear energy, such as the United States, France, Japan, and Korea, have organized the Generation IV International Forum(GIF) and have carried out joint research for future nuclear energy systems.

Korea has been a chartered member of GIF since 2000 and has played a significant role in the development of Gen-IV nuclear energy systems. Since 2006, Korea has participated in the co-development of the Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) and Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR). The SFR is a next generation nuclear reactor which initiates nuclear fission using high speed neutrons of a high energy level. By using high speed neutrons, spent nuclear fuel can be reused as a new fuel. It will achieve not only the most effective use of uranium support, but also reduce the toxicity of spent fuel by transforming its longer half-life and highly toxic radioactive elements into a shorter half-life and less toxic elements. The VHTR, operating at 950^oC, can be used for the production of large amounts of hydrogen in a safe, clean and economical manner through direct separation of water by using its high temperature level. As of March 2011, Korea has signed on to six collaborative projects:  Safety & Operation(SO), Advanced Fuels(AF), Component Design & Balance of Plant(CDBOP) in SFR, Fuel & Fuel Cycle(FFC), Materials(MAT) and Hydrogen Production(HP) in VHTR.

INPRO was initiated in 2000 for the purpose of jointly considering the international actions required to achieve the desired innovations in nuclear reactors and fuel cycles. Currently, thirty-one countries are members of INPRO and Korea has been a member of INPRO since 2001. INPRO has investigated the role of nuclear energy in the 21st century for sustainable development and determined the requirements and criteria for innovative technologies for nuclear fuel cycles and nuclear power. Korea coordinated the activities for developing the criteria for proliferation resistance of nuclear reactors and fuel systems and participated in case studies for the examination of innovative nuclear energy technologies against the criteria and requirements. A well, Korea has participated in the INPRO Collaborative Projects (CPs) which have started to address technical issues. Korea is leading the project on Proliferation Resistance: Acquisition/Diversion Analysis (PRADA) for attaining the security of future nuclear energy systems and is participating in other CPs, including the European Union’s CP on thorium fuel cycle and Russia and India’s CP on fast reactors. Korea has participated in the INPRO Dialogue Forum on Nuclear Energy Innovations which is organized to discuss strategies for collaboration toward ensuring and facilitating the integration of nuclear technologies in states without the capacity to do so alone, while also participating in the INPRO/GIF Interface Meetings to discuss recent developments and the relationship between INPRO and GIF.

GNEP was organized internationally in 2007 to focus on the worldwide expansion of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes worldwide in a safe and secure manner that supports clean development, while reducing the risk of nuclear proliferation. Korea joined GNEP in 2008. The twenty-five member countries divided the work into two expert-based Working Groups: Reliable Nuclear Fuel Services and Nuclear Infrastructure Development. GNEP makes collaborative efforts for a stable nuclear fuel market and infrastructure support for member countries that intend to introduce nuclear power. GNEP changed its name to the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC) in June 2010 to provide a broader scope with wider international participation to more effectively explore the most important issues underlying the use and expansion of nuclear energy worldwide. Korea is sharing its experience in infrastructure development, including institutions, organizations and human resources, and technological self-reliance, to assist member countries in their plans to introduce nuclear power. The feasibility for deployment of small and medium-sized reactors (SMRs) which are suitable to member countries’ small electricity grids is being increasingly discussed in the INFEC working groups.

As part of a bilateral agreement, the International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (I-NERI) program between the United States of America and Korea was launched in 2001. As of March 2011, both sides have finished thirty-two joint projects in various fields such as future nuclear systems, fuel cycle, nuclear hydrogen, light water reactors, instrument and control, etc. There are nine on-going projects with a focus on advanced nuclear technologies such as SFR, VHTR and advanced fuel cycles.

2.9 Human resources development

A characteristic of the Korean nuclear society is that major nuclear related organizations are in the public domain. Nuclear industries, such as KHNP (Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power), KEPCO NF (KEPCO Nuclear Fuel), KOPEC E&C (KEPCO Engineering & Construction), KEPCO KPS (KEPCO Plant Service) and KEPRI (KEPCO Electric Power Research Institute) are under the jurisdiction of the MKE(Ministry of Knowledge Economy) while the research institute, KAERI (Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute) and the regulatory expert group, KINS (Korea Institute for Nuclear Safety) are under the jurisdiction of the MEST (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology).

Government policy is very important and influential to a nuclear society that lies in the public sector. The MEST formulates a “Comprehensive Nuclear Energy Promotion Plan (CNEPP)” every five years under the legal basis of the Korean Atomic Energy Act. The CNEPP includes long-term nuclear policy objectives and basic directions, sector-by-sector objectives, budget and investment plans, which incorporate manpower issues, etc. The Atomic Energy Act stipulates that the MEST and the heads of the concerned Ministries shall formulate sector-by-sector implementation plans for those areas under their jurisdiction in accordance with the CNEPP and then establish and implement annual action plans.

There are six universities that provide nuclear engineering programs and about twenty colleges that provide programs for radiation health physics applications. About 200 nuclear engineers graduate every year. Recently, the number of university students majoring in science and technology who may be looking toward work in the nuclear industry is increasing.

KHNP looks for and employs high-quality university and community college graduates, and trains employees at its Nuclear Power Education Institute and other training and education centres within and outside the company. KHNP focuses its efforts on nurturing the best engineers by involving them in long term OJP (On-the-Project) programs at overseas nuclear plants. Also KHNP offers employees master’s and doctor’s degree courses to upgrade their qualifications while combining theoretical knowledge and practical skills through industry-academic cooperation. In addition, KHNP has set up four training centres at each nuclear power plant site, to provide operators with simulator training and specific engineer training for the different types of nuclear power plants.

The Nuclear Training Centre (NTC) of the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) provides a wide range of training courses to nurture domestic and foreign nuclear personnel and implements various projects to contribute to the nation’s technical independence in nuclear power generation and development of new technologies.

Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS), the country’s nuclear safety regulator, has established and operated the International Nuclear Safety School (INSS) to train nuclear safety regulation staff and educate nuclear industry workers, students and the general public on information regarding nuclear safety. INSS, which is the trusted educational centre for radioactive disaster prevention staff, supervises and manages the six educational institutions, authorized by the government, for the nation’s entire staff in radioactive disaster prevention.

2.10 Stakeholder Communication

[General Public]

Nuclear energy institutes, including KHNP(Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power) and KONEPA(Korea Nuclear Energy Promotion Agency), are pushing ahead with public education on nuclear energy, with the goal of eliminating the negative perception of nuclear energy held by many members of the public and building a social consensus on its use. To achieve this, the public is being provided information on nuclear power plant operation and the current state of radioactive waste through websites and through newsletters sent out to website members. In addition, booklets are being published on the operation of nuclear power plants (NPPs) and the safety and necessity of nuclear energy with each booklet targeting different readers with different content.

Visitors are provided with opportunities to learn about the current state of NPPs and may tour facilities through the information & exhibition centers that are installed in NPPs. Also, the public is informed about the safety, economic feasibility and eco-friendliness of nuclear energy through booths at various exhibitions.

The nuclear industry in Korea strives to provide the public with objective and scientific knowledge on nuclear energy through mass media such as TV and newspapers, in various forms such as advertisements, informational features, publicity campaigns and articles. Efforts are also being made to promote a positive awareness of nuclear energy by organizing or supporting seminars, workshops and academic presentations.

[Local Residents]

Public relations activities targeting local residents, who, as direct stakeholders, are very interested in the nuclear energy business, are focused on narrowing the gap and strengthening the bond between these stakeholders and the industry through direct contact to reassure them of the safety of nuclear energy. The nuclear industry in Korea recognizes that the degree of acceptance of nuclear energy varies depending on local and international situations and factors and therefore establishes and executes separate strategies accordingly to best fit the needs of these stakeholders. Nuclear power plant workers are also active in conducting person-to-person public relations activities with local residents.

KHNP provides the public with information on the operation of NPPs, the operating principles of NPPs, and the current radioactive waste situation through its website and information & exhibition centers. In addition, KHNP conducts joint environmental inspections around NPPs with local representatives and local universities, and provides available information to local residents to monitor the operation of NPPs in non-government environment watchdog groups.

[Next Generation]

As young people do not yet have a firmly-established point of view of nuclear energy, it is very important to help them develop positive perceptions regarding nuclear energy. KHNP and KONEPA work to educate young people on the advantages and necessity of nuclear energy in the following ways.

KHNP holds regular Nuclear Contests such as a drawing contest, a writing contest and a science camp during summer vacation, while also opening its information & exhibition centers and offering plant tours for students in the neighboring areas. Plus, KONEPA presents a Nuclear Musical and Festival for the next generations to enjoy and learn about nuclear energy with their families. Science teachers across the nation are provided nuclear energy work training and distributed promotional magazines. Nuclear energy experts are also available to visit schools to teach students as a one day teacher. Moreover, KHNP provides nuclear power plant tours and lectures to special purpose high school students, such as science high school students, to help encourage excellent students to build a career in the nuclear power industry. KHNP is making many efforts to help more young people understand nuclear energy through other diverse approaches such as the national open recruitment of university students to act as public relations representatives and preferential hiring of the winners of the national academic paper contests for university students.

In particular, since school’s have absolute influence on students, KONEPA is making all efforts to analyze textbooks used in elementary, middle, and high schools and reflect any additions or corrections to the textbooks so that nuclear energy education is systematically provided. Additionally, KONEPA has developed and distributed the educational materials – books, presentations, pictures – for teachers who want to teach nuclear energy related subjects. KONEPA also provides nuclear power plant tours for textbook editors to increase their understanding of nuclear power.

[Media]

The mass media, such as television, newspapers and Internet, provides information to the public and shapes public's opinion. Therefore, it is helpful to the nuclear energy industry to offer objective material and scientific information on nuclear energy through reliable mass media channels.

KHNP and KONEPA offer objective material and scientific information on nuclear energy through reliable mass media channels, while also providing special reports on nuclear energy in joint campaigns with newspapers or commission columns written by nuclear energy specialists.

The news media requires facts in order to provide accurate reports on nuclear power programs. Background information provided to the news media includes photographs, films, videotapes, fact sheets, copies of technical reports, government laws or policy statements, and information booklets or pamphlets. Moreover, KHNP and KONEPA try to broadcast important ceremonies, including ground-breaking events, reactor installation and plant construction completion, etc. to increase media awareness.

Advertising both arouses people’s curiosity and increases their interest. KHNP and KONEPA use an advertising motif to inform people in a user-friendly manner of the fact that nuclear energy is an essential part of our everyday lives. These advertisements convey their messages not only through the mass media such as TV, radio, newspapers and magazines, but also through full-color electric signboards and outdoor billboards at crowded airports, bus terminals, and railway and subway stations.

KHNP and KONEPA work to continuously stage campaigns to promote nuclear energy, the environment, and energy security through joint efforts with the media. These attempts have made great contributions to public awareness of nuclear energy issues.

[Cyber-Promotion]

KHNP is increasing public confidence regarding the operation of NPPs by providing the public with real-time information on the state of operation, maintenance, and stoppage of all NPPs in the Republic of Korea through the company’s website.

The website And it provides a ring tone and dial tone service for employees’ mobile phones, and enables anyone to download ring tones for free.

KONEPA’s cyber work includes collecting netizens(network citizens)’ opinions through cyber discussion rooms and bulletin boards, and providing prompt answers to netizens’ questions regarding nuclear energy through a ‘question and answer’, blog, ‘Energy Planet’. KONEPA tries to raise participation of netizens and website visitors, inducing their interest by holding events such as UCC, nuclear energy quizzes and flash contests.

The company also provides promotional videos on its website, so that the public and local residents can easily gain an understanding of nuclear energy. Through these videos, the company promotes the safety, economic feasibility and eco-friendliness of nuclear energy, and seeks to build a social consensus that nuclear energy is a key energy for green growth.

Finally, KHNP sends its nuclear power newsletter to approximately 147,000 people twice per month in the form of a webzine that includes the domestic and overseas nuclear energy trends, KHNP news, and management agendas.

[Information & Exhibition Center]

The nuclear power plant tour is the best way to promote the safe, clean and reliable energy NPP’s provide to the public. Each nuclear power plant in the Republic of Korea has an information & exhibition center, and these are visited by a combined total of more than 450,000 people each year. Visitors listen to explanations of nuclear power generation and watch a video on the current state of NPPs, after which they are able to tour the nuclear power plant facilities.

The Main Control Room and radioactive waste disposal and storage facilities are included during the tour course, and the NPPs under construction are being built for easy tour access to the facilities via a see-through corridors.

KONEPA also holds exhibitions of nuclear related facilities. Major exhibition facilities include the Nuclear Center at the National Seoul Science Museum, the Electric Energy Pavilion of the Expo Science Park in Daejeon and Energy Experiencing ‘Happy i’ Center in the head office. Each is comprised of nuclear energy-related models, experimental devices, graphic panels, an information search section and other exhibits for hands-on experiences, offering a good learning venue not only for students, but for adults as well.

3. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1 Regulatory framework

3.1.1 Regulatory authorities

The governmental organizations concerned with nuclear activities, as shown in Figure 7, are mainly formed of administrative authorities: MKE(The Ministry of Knowledge Economy), which supervises the nuclear power program; MOE(the Ministry of Environment), which is responsible for regulating issues concerning the general environment excluding the radiological environment; and MEST(the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology), which is responsible for nuclear safety regulations including the licensing of nuclear installations. There is also the Atomic Energy Commission(AEC) under the jurisdiction of the Prime Minister, as the supreme organization for decision making on national nuclear policy. Its responsibility is to deliberate and decide on important matters concerning the development and utilization of nuclear energy. And lastly, NSC(the Nuclear Safety Commission), under the jurisdiction of the MEST, is responsible for deliberating and deciding on important matters concerning the safety of nuclear installations.

Nuclear safety regulatory organizations are mainly composed within the MEST and the NSC as safety regulatory authorities and KINS(the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety) and KINAC(the Korea Institute of Nuclear Non-proliferation and Control) as a safety regulatory expert bodies. The primary mission of the MEST is to ensure adequate protection of the public health and the environment against radiation hazards that may accompany the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The KINS was established in December 1981 and initially operated under the name of "Nuclear Safety Center" as an internal organization of KAERI(the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute). It started functioning as an independent expert organization in February 1990 and conducts matters on nuclear safety regulation as entrusted by the MEST in accordance with the Atomic Energy Laws. The KINAC was established in June 2006 and commissioned by the MEST, to perform the tasks of safeguards, control of export and import of nuclear materials, physical protection, and research and development concerning nuclear facilities and nuclear materials.

FIGURE 7. STRUCTURE OF NUCLEAR SAFETY REGULATORY ORGANIZATIONS

3.1.2 Licensing Process

Regulation and licensing processes for nuclear power plants in Korea are divided into three stages:

1. In the site selection stage, the conceptual design is examined to determine the appropriateness of the proposed site. The safety requirements of the site are reviewed from the standpoints of the design, the construction, and the operation of the plant

2. For the construction permit, the utility submits a Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) and an overall quality assurance program for the project along with the reference design of the plant. Additionally, the utility is required to prepare an environmental impact statement

3. When the utility requests an operating license, the MEST must confirm that the as-built plant conforms to the submitted design. In this stage, operational technical specifications, and emergency plans and procedures against radiation hazards are submitted

Regulatory inspections of NPPs under construction or in operation are executed in steps according to established procedures including pre-operational inspections of the nuclear installation, periodic inspections of the operating nuclear installations, quality assurance audits, daily inspections by resident inspectors, and special inspections.

In compliance with the Article of the Convention on Nuclear Safety, use of the Periodic Safety Review (PSR) was adopted by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) through technical review by the Nuclear Safety Commission as a safety evaluation process during the lifetime of operating nuclear power plants to maintain the safety levels in line with current safety standards and practices in 1999. The Atomic Energy Act (AEA) was amended to establish the definite provisions for PSR implementation in 2001.

Kori-1 was designated as the first plant to apply a PSR in Korea and HNP conducted the PSR for Kori-1 from May 2000 to October 2002. The result was submitted to the MEST in November 2002 for intensive review.

Subsequently, PSRs for other plants which have been operating for more than 10 years, such as Kori-2, 3, 4, Wolsong-2, 3, 4, Yonggwang-1, 2, 3, 4 and Ulchin-1, 2, 3, 4, were implemented by November 2010. The PSRs for the remaining plants, which are Yonggwang-5, 6 and Ulchin-5, 6, will be implemented in 2011 and 2013, respectively. The 2^nd PSRs will begin in 2013 for Kori-2.

The Korean government is continually improving its nuclear control system as the amount of domestic nuclear material increases with the growth of the nuclear industry. The government established a State System for the Accounting and Control of nuclear materials (SSAC) within the MEST. In order to develop nuclear control technology and to technically assist the government, the Technology Centre for Nuclear Control (TCNC) at KAERI was established in 1994. The Korean government launched the National Nuclear Management and Control Agency (NNCA), an independent watchdog, in October 2004. NNCA was expanded into the Korea Institute of Non-proliferation and Control (KINAC) in June 2006 in order to enhance the country’s nuclear transparency.

3.2 Main national laws and regulations in nuclear power

[Legislative framework of nuclear regulation]

National laws related to the safety of spent fuel and radioactive waste management are the Atomic Energy Act (AEA), the Electricity Business Act (EBA), the Environmental Impact Assessment Act and others as shown in Table 10. All provisions concerning nuclear safety regulation and radiation protection are included in the AEA. The AEA was enacted as the main law concerning safety regulations for spent fuel and radioactive waste.

TABLE 10. LAWS CONCERNING NUCLEAR REGULATION

Title	Major Contents	Competent Authorities	Remarks
Atomic Energy Act	Basic law on nuclear safety regulations	MEST	-
Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety Act	Provides the establishment and operation of the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety	MEST	-
Act on Physical Protection and Radiological Emergency	Establishes more effective systems for physical protection of nuclear material and nuclear facilities, and provides legal and institutional basis for preventing a radiological disaster and preparing countermeasures against a radiological emergency	MEST	-
Nuclear Liability Act	Provides the procedures and the extent of compensation for any damages which an individual has suffered from a nuclear accident	MEST	-
Act on Indemnification Agreement for Nuclear Liability	Provides the particulars for a contract between the government and the operator to make up any compensation not covered by insurance	MEST	-
Electricity Business Act	Provides the basic system of electricity business	MKE	-
Electric Source Development Promotion Act	Provides special cases relevant to the development of electric sources	MKE	Prior designation notice of nuclear site
Radioactive Waste Control Act	Provides for matters necessary for the safe and efficient control and management of radioactive waste	MKE	-
Basic Law of Environmental Policy	Funding law of environmental preservation policy	MOE	The AEA is entrusted with the particulars on measures to prevent radiological contamination
Act on Assessment of Impacts of Works on Environment, Traffic, Disasters, etc.	Provides the extent and procedures to assess environmental impact according to the Basic Law of Environmental Policy	MOE	Assessment of environmental impacts excluding radiological impacts
Framework Act on Fire Services	Provides for general matters on the prevention, precautions and the extinguishing of fires	MOPAS	Requirements for safety management of inflammables
Basic Act on Civil Defence	Provides for general matters on the civil defence system	MOPAS	Preparedness against disasters due to nuclear accidents is included in the basic civil defence plan
Framework Act on Management of Disasters and Safety	Provides for general matters on the control of man-made disasters	MOPAS	Prescribes corrective or complementary measures for violations in the implementation of the basic civil defence plan
Industrial Accident Compensation Insurance Act	Provides insurance to compensate workers in case of an industrial disaster	MOL	Nuclear workers are to be compensated in accordance with the compensation standards in the AEA.
Industrial Safety and Health Act	Provides for the preservation and enhancement of workers' health and safety	MOL	The AEA includes the particulars on radiological safety
Building Act	Provides for general matters on construction	MLTM	When the sites of disposal facilities have obtained prior approval, they are to be seen as having obtained construction permission in accordance with the Building Act

[Atomic Energy Act]

The laws concerning nuclear regulation, as shown in Figure 8, consist of 4 levels: the AEA, the Enforcement Decree of the AEA, the Enforcement Regulations of the AEA (including regulations concerning technical standards of nuclear facilities, etc., and regulations concerning technical standards of radiation safety management), and the Notices of the MEST.

FIGURE 8. LEGAL HIERARCHY OF THE ATOMIC ENERGY ACTS

			Atomic Energy Act (AEA)
		Enforcement Decree of the AEA (Presidential Decree)
	( Enforcement Regulation of the AEA ( Enforcement Regulation Concerning the Technical Standards of Reactor Facilities, etc. ( Enforcement Regulation Concerning the Technical Standards of Radiation Safety Management, etc.
Notices of the MEST
Industrial Codes & Standards

The AEA provides for basic and fundamental matters concerning the safety regulations. The AEA includes provisions for the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), permits for construction and operation of radioactive waste disposal facilities, and others as shown in Table 10. The Enforcement Decree of the AEA (Presidential Decree) provides the particulars entrusted in the AEA, and the administrative particulars, including the detailed procedures and methods, etc., necessary for enforcement of the AEA.

The Enforcement Regulation of the AEA (MEST Ordinances) provides the particulars, including detailed procedures, format of documents, and technical standards, as entrusted by the same Act and the same Decree. The Enforcement Regulations were divided into namely the Enforcement Regulation of the Act, the Enforcement Regulation Concerning the Technical Standards of Reactor Facilities, etc., and the Enforcement Regulation Concerning the Technical Standards of Radiation Safety Management, etc. Finally, the Notices of the MEST prescribe the regulatory requirements, technical standards and guidelines, as entrusted by the same Act, Decree and Regulation.

The AEA prescribes basic matters on waste safety to be applied to radioactive waste management facilities, as follows:

• provisions for construction/operation permits of disposal facilities;

• provisions for step-by-step safety inspections related to installation and operations of radioactive waste management facilities;

• provisions for restrictions regarding disposal practices of radioactive wastes including prohibition of dumping into the sea;

• provisions for the safe transport and packaging of radioactive waste;

• provisions for the establishment and implementation of a basic policy; and

• management program in order to manage radioactive wastes in a safe and efficient manner.

[Electricity business legislative framework]

The Electricity Business Act (EBA) establishes a basic framework regarding electricity business and stipulates basic information for the promotion of the electricity business. The Enforcement Decree of the EBA, the Enforcement Regulations of the EBA, and the Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE) Notices provide necessary information for the implementation of standards and procedures entrusted by higher laws.

As shown in Figure 9, the EBA system consists of 4 levels; the EBA, the Enforcement Decree of the EBA, the Enforcement Regulations of the EBA, and the MKE Notice.

FIGURE 9. LEGAL HIERARCHY OF THE EBA SYSTEM

			Electricity Business Act (EBA)
		Enforcement Decree of the EBA
	Enforcement Regulations of the EBA
Notices of the MKE

REFERENCES

[1] Cheong Wa Dae; Office of the President of Korea (http://english.president.go.kr )

[2] Korean Statistical Information Service (http://kosis.kr/eng )

[3] The Bank of Korea Economic Statistics System (http://ecos.bok.or.kr)

[4] Korea Energy Statistics Information System (http://www.kesis.net)

[5] The 5^th Basic Plan of Long-Term Electricity Supply, Ministry of Knowledge Economy

[6] Energy Info. Korea 2010, Korea Energy Economics Institute

[7] Yearbook of Energy Statistics, Korea Energy Economics Institute

[8] Yearbook of Electricity Statistics, KEPCO

[9] Yearbook of New & Renewable Energy Statistics 2010, Korea Energy Management Corporation

APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL, MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

INTERNATIONAL TREATIES, CONVENTIONS AND AGREEMENT

1. Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), in effect since August 1957.

2. Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in effect since January 1962.

3. Amendment of Article VI. A.3 of the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in effect since January 1963.

4. Amendment of Article VI of the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in effect since June 1973.

5. Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (RCA), in effect since October 1974.

6. Agreement to Extend the Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (1972), in effect since July 1978.

7. Second Agreement to Extend the Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (1972), in effect since December 1982.

8. Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (RCA, 1987), in effect since December 1987.

9. Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, in effect since July 1990.

10. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, in effect since July 1990.

11. Agreement to Extend the Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (1987), in effect since December 1992.

12. Agreement on the Establishment of the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO), in effect since March 1995.

13. Convention on Nuclear Safety, in effect since October 1996.

14. Second Agreement to Extend the 1987 Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology, in effect since June 1997.

15. Agreement on Cooperation Among the Original Members of Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization, in effect since September 1997.

16. Protocol Amending the Agreement on the Establishment of the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization, in effect since September 1997.

17. Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, in effect since December 2002.

18. Framework Agreement for International Collaboration on Research and Development of Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems, in effect since November 2005.

19. Fourth Agreement to Extend the 1987 Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development, and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology, in effect since July 2007.

20. Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the ITER International Fusion Energy Organization for the Joint Implementation of the ITER Project, in effect since October 2007.

21. Agreement on the Establishment of the ITER International Fusion Energy Organization for the Joint Implementation of the ITER Project, in effect since October 2007.

COOPERATION AGREEMENTS WITH IAEA

1. Exchange of Notes between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the International Atomic Energy Agency concerning Technical Assistance, in effect since May 1961.

2. Exchange of Notes for the Services (Application of Radioisotope in Agriculture) of Technical Assistance Experts between the Republic of Korea and the International Atomic Energy Agency, in effect since October 1962.

3. Exchange of Notes for the Services (Experimental Nuclear Physics) of Technical Assistance Experts between the Republic of Korea and the International Atomic Energy Agency, in effect since December 1962.

4. Exchange of Notes for the Services (Radio-Chemistry) of Technical Assistance Experts between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the International Atomic Energy Agency, in effect since April 1963.

5. Supplementary Agreement on Provision of Technical Assistance by the International Atomic Energy Agency to the Government of the Republic of Korea, in effect since April 1967.

6. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the International Atomic Energy Agency for the Application Safeguards in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, in effect since November 1975.

7. Revised Supplementary Agreement concerning the Provision of Technical Assistance by the International Atomic Energy Agency to the Government of the Republic of Korea, in effect since January 1980.

8. Protocol Additional to the Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the International Atomic Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, in effect since February 2004.

BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

1. Agreement for Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America concerning Civil Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since February 1956.

2. Amendment to Agreement for Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America concerning Civil Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since May 1958.

3. Lease Agreement for the Special Nuclear Material between the United States Atomic Energy Commission acting for and on behalf of the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of Korea, in effect since June 1960.

4. Exchange of Notes concerning a Grant by the Government of the United States of America in the Acquisition of Certain Nuclear Research and Training Equipment and Materials between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America, in effect since November 1960.

5. Lease Agreement for the Special Nuclear Material between the United States Atomic Energy Commission acting for and on behalf of the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of Korea, in effect since September 1961.

6. Lease Agreement for Special Nuclear Material between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the United States Atomic Energy Commission acting for and on behalf of the Government of the United States of America, in effect since June 1963.

7. Amendment to Agreement for Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America concerning Civil Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since January 1966.

8. Agreement between the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America for the Application of Safeguards, in effect since January 1968.

9. Agreement to Amend the Agreement between the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America for the Application of Safeguards, in effect since March 1973.

10. Agreement for Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America concerning Civil Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since March 1973.

11. Amendment to Agreement for Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United States of America concerning Civil Uses of Atomic Energy, in effect since June 1974.

12. Exchange of Notes between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the French Republic concerning Reciprocal Cooperation for the Peaceful Utilization of Atomic Energy, in effect since October 1974.

13. Agreement between the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the French Republic for the Application of Safeguards, in effect since September 1975.

14. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Canada for Cooperation in the Development and Application of Atomic Energy for Peaceful Purposes, in effect since January 1976.

15. Basic Agreement on Scientific and Technical Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Spain, in effect since March 1976.

16. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Australia concerning Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and the Transfer of Nuclear Material, in effect since May 1979.

17. Exchange of Notes between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany for the Supply of the Radionuclide Batteries to the Republic of Korea, in effect since October 1979.

18. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the French Republic relating to Peaceful Utilization of Atomic Energy, in effect since April 1981.

19. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Belgium concerning the Collaboration in the field of the Pacific Utilization of Nuclear Energy, in effect since March 1981.

20. Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Canada on the Establishment and Operation of the Korea-Canada Joint Coordinating Committee on Nuclear Energy, in effect since April 1983.

21. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since April 1986.

22. Exchange of Notes between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Canada on Retransfer of Nuclear Material, in effect since June 1989.

23. Exchange of Notes between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Japan concerning Cooperation in Nuclear Energy, in effect since May 1990.

24. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since November 1991.

25. Exchange of Notes on the Republic of Korea's joining the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, in effect since May 1993.

26. Arrangement between the Korean Ministry of Science and Technology and the United States Department of Energy concerning Research And Development in Nuclear Material Control, Accountancy, Verification, Physical Protection, and Advanced Containment and Surveillance Technologies for International Safeguards Applications, in effect since September 1994.

27. Arrangement between the Ministry of Science and Technology (M.O.S.T.), the Republic of Korea, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (U.S.N.R.C.), United States of America, for the Exchange of Technical Information and Cooperation in Regulatory and Safety Research Matters, in effect since June 1995.

28. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the People's Republic of China for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since February 1995.

29. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam for Cooperation in Research into the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since January 1997.

30. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Argentine Republic for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since September 1997.

31. Exchange of Notes concerning on Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Australia concerning Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and Transfer of Nuclear Material Signed at Canberra on 2 May 1979, in effect since November 1997.

32. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since October 1999.

33. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Republic of Turkey for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since June 1999.

34. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Czech Republic for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since June 2001.

35. Exchange of Notes between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Canada constituting an Agreement relating to the Transfer of Tritium Items for the Wolsong Tritium Removal Facility, in effect since January 2001.

36. Exchange of Notes for the Amendment of the Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Canada for Cooperation in the Development and Application of Atomic Energy for Peaceful Purposes, in effect since July 2002.

37. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since June 2002.

38. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of Romania for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy in the fields of Industry, Research and Development, in effect since September 2004.

39. Agreement on Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, signed in September 2004.

40. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since July 2005.

41. Agreement for Cooperation between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the European Atomic Energy Community Represented by the Commission of the European Communities in the field of Fusion Energy Research, in effect since December 2006.

42. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Republic of Chile for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since September 2006.

43. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, signed in December 2006.

44. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since June 2008.

45. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since May 2009.

46. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the United Arab Emirates for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since January 2010.

47. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since August 2010

48. Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and the Government of the Republic of South Africa for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, in effect since February 2011

APPENDIX 2: MAIN ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES

National Nuclear Energy Authorities
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Central Government Complex, 77-6 Sejong-No, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 110-760, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-2100-6950 Fax: +82-2-2100-6965
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) Central Government Complex, 77-6 Sejong-No, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 110-760, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-2100-6118 Fax: +82-2-2100-6133 http://www.mest.go.kr
Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE) Government Complex, 88 Gwanmoonro, Gwacheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 427-723 Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-1577-0900 Fax: +82-2-504-7634 http://www.mke.go.kr
Nuclear Industry
Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) 1045 Daeduk-daero (Dukjin-dong), Yusong-gu, Daejeon, 305-353, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-42-868-2000 Fax: +82-42-868-2196 http://www.kaeri.re.kr
Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS) 34 Gwahak-ro (Kusong-dong), Yusong-gu, Daejeon, 305-338, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-42-868-0000 Fax: +82-42-861-1700 http://www.kins.re.kr
Korea Cancer Centre Hospital (KCCH) 75 Nowon-gil (Gongneung-dong), Nowon-gu Seoul, 139-706, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-970-2114 Fax: +82-2-978-2005 http://www.kcch.re.kr
Korea Radioisotope Association (KRIA) 14-5, Gaepo-dong, Gangnam-gu, Seoul, 135-988, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-3490-7111 Fax: +82-2-445-1014 http://www.ri.or.kr
Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) 411 Yeongdong-daero (Samseong-dong), Gangnam-gu, Seoul, 135-791, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-3456-3114 Fax: +82-2-3456-3203 http://www.kepco.co.kr
Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co., LTD (KHNP) 411 Yeongdong-daero (Samseong-dong), Gangnam-gu, Seoul, 135-791, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-2-3456-2114 Fax: +82-2-3456-2359 http://www.khnp.co.kr
Doosan Heavy Industries and Construction Co. 555, Guygok-dong, Changwon-si, Kyungnam, 641-792, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-55-278-6114 Fax: +82-55-264-5551 http://www.doosanheavy.com
KOPEC Engineering Construction Co., Inc. (KEPCO E&C) 2354 Yongu-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Geonggi-do, 446-713, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-31-289-3114 Fax: +82-31-283-6215 http://www.kepco-enc.com
KEPCO Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd. (KEPCO NF) 1047 Daeduk-daero (Deokjin-dong), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-353, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-42-868-1000 Fax: +82-42-868-1219 http://www.knfc.co.kr
KEPCO Plant Services and Engineering Co., Ltd. (KEPCO KPS) 1 Migum-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Geonggi-do, 463-726, Republic of Korea	Tel: +82-31-710-4114 Fax: +82-31-710-4115 http://www.kps.co.kr
Energy Research Institutes
Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI)	http://www.kbsi.re.kr
Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER)	http://www.kier.re.kr
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)	http://www.kaist.ac.kr
Pohang University of Science and Technology	http://www.postech.ac.kr/e
Pohang Accelerator Laboratory (PAL)	http://pal.postech.ac.kr
Other Organizations
Korean Nuclear Society	http://www.nuclear.or.kr
Korea Nuclear Energy Promotion Agency (KONEPA)	http://www.konepa.or.kr
Korea Atomic Industrial Forum	http://www.kaif.or.kr

Coordinator: Sae-rog Hyun / KHNP / 07290365@khnp.co.kr

Attachment 1: PREFIXES AND CONVERSION FACTORS

TABLE 1. PREFIXES

Symbol	Name	Factor
E	exa	1018
P	peta	1015
T	tera	1012
G	giga	109
M	mega	106
K	kilo	103
H	hecto	102
da	deca	101
D	deci	10-1
C	centi	10-2
M	mili	10-3
µ	micro	10-6
?	nano	10-9
P	pico	10-12
F	femto	10-15
A	atto	10-18

TABLE 2. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR ENERGY

To:	TJ	Gcal	Mtoe	MBtu	GWh
From:	Multiply by:
TJ	1	238.8	2.388 x 10-5	947.8	0.2778
Gcal	4.1868 x 10-3	1	10-7	3.968	1.163 x 10-3
Mtoe	4.1868 x 104	107	1	3.968 x 107	11630
Mbtu	1.0551 x 10-3	0.252	2.52 x 10-8	1	2.931 x 10-4
GWh	3.6	860	8.6 x 10-5	3412	1

TABLE 3. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR MASS

To:	kg	T	lt	st	lb
From:	Multiply by:
kg (kilogram)	1	0.001	9.84 x 10-4	1.102 x 10-3	2.2046
T (tonne)	1000	1	0.984	1.1023	2204.6
Lt (long tonne)	1016	1.016	1	1.12	2240.0
st (short tonne)	907.2	0.9072	0.893	1	2000.0
lb (pound)	0.454	4.54 x 10-4	4.46 x 10-4	5.0 x 10-4	1

TABLE 4. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR VOLUME

To:	US gal	UK gal	bbl	ft3	L	m3
From:	Multiply by:
US gal (US gallon)	1	0.8327	0.02381	0.1337	3.785	0.0038
UK gal (UK gallon)	1.201	1	0.02859	0.1605	4.546	0.0045
bbl (barrel)	42.0	34.97	1	5.615	159.0	0.159
ft3 (cubic foot)	7.48	6.229	0.1781	1	28.3	0.0283
l (litre)	0.2642	0.22	0.0063	0.0353	1	0.001
m3 (cubic metre)	264.2	220.0	6.289	35.3147	1000	1

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